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Listed below are some key passages that encapsulate the major statements of Sydney‘s ‗A Defence of Poetry‘ already discussed above.

1. Page 102 and 120 – fundamental position of Literature.

2. Page 104 and 105 – venerable names of the poet.

3. Page 105 – the concept of creative imitation.

4. Page 106 – definition of Poetry and three kinds of texts.

5. Page 107 – nature and functions of literature and genres of literature 6. Page 107 – features of a poetic text.

7. Pages 109-111 – the excellent teaching capacity of literature in comparison to other disciplines.

8. Page 116 – themes and styles of different genres of poetry.

9. Page 121 – charges against literature and Sydney‘s defence.

10. Page 129 – literary criticism.

11. Page 133 – indigenous language in creativity.

There are still other passages which include major views and memorable statements but are not included in this lecture note. You need to identify them for a more objective and comprehensive analysis of ‗A Defence of Poesy‘.

4. 2. INTERPRETATION

This part examines Sydney‘s theoretical statements. The comments will be more beneficial if you have already read the text of the essay giving special attention to the key passages. Of course you already know that the essay under study represents Sydney‘s intellectual attempt at positioning literature within the central structures of his aristocratic milieu. This is in the face of rising antagonism against literature represented by Gosson‘s acerbic attack on literature. His position exhibits his interest in both creative and national characters of his period as manifest in

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all the sections of the essay. This segment is equally divided into three major parts – Poetry, Defence and Criticism.

POETRY

Here we analyse Sydney‘s views on nature and function of literature, texts and literary genres and scholarly disciplines. We also explore Sydney‘s relationship with the major classical theorists. The scholar‘s definition of literature as ―a speaking picture‖ illustrates his idea of literature as imitation but that which involves creativity. In other words, literature, in Sydney‘s term, is an art of imitation with a definite educational and entertainment purpose. Sydney‘s dominant interest is the moral value of a literary text on the audience. Thematic concern is for him more important than structural aspects of a work. His logic is thus mainly burdened with the impact of literature on the reader. According to Stephen Conway ―the argument Sidney presents and develops is built around the assumption that literature has the capacity to teach most effectively and to demonstrate virtue‖ (1995, p. 1).

For Sydney, literature goes beyond verse and embraces prose but that prose is the type that creates novel things. Under Sydney‘s concept, creative imitation functions by the employment of the poet‘s imaginative capacity and poetic resources. He perceives poets as ‗makers‘ and

‗creators‘. His position thus provides for the concept of poetic justice in creative writing. His argument advocates for the representation of ideal situations which demonstrates punishment of evil and reward for good. It is therefore moralistic in its advocacy that literature should exhibit universal terms of reference for human edification.

You must have noted that aspects of the classical thoughts of Plato, Aristotle and Horace are reflected in Sydney‘s statements. You still remember Aristotle‘s concept of imitation. Sydney‘s definition reaffirms Aristotle‘s view that poetry is an act of imitation. There are therefore points of convergences between the Sydney and Aristotle‘s concepts of literatures. However, scholars like Paul reminds us that Sydney‘s concept of poetry ―is different‖ from Aristotle‘s whom he professes to trail (1). In Sydney‘s idea, poetry is an art of imitation conceived for a definite aim – to teach and delight. It involves originality and construction of an ideal world for the purpose of

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instruction and entertainment. While Aristotle considers human action more vital, Sydney sees nature as more essential. Do you observe how Sydney extends Aristotle‘s view? Nevertheless,

―the reference to Aristotle shows that this man was still influential‖ (Khamis, 2012, p. 1). In fact, earlier critical opinions hold that Sydney‘s work is an imitation of Aristotle‘s and as such is devoid of originality. However, later critical comments observe some differences in the theoretical ideas of both scholars. Thus, Strozier observes that ―the uniqueness of the Apology was often … recognized by critics‖ (1972, p. 49). Please bear in mind that under Sydney‘s theory, the ultimate aim of literature, as an art form, is to teach and to delight. His identification of the twin function of literature is a very central idea expressed in this essay. It communicates the functional and entertainment values of literature. The concept of art as educative and entertaining is in tandem with the Renaissance inclination.

Sydney‘s classification of literature as an art with a function to teach and delight reechoes not only Aristotle‘s but also Horace‘s aesthetic principle. Kaplan and Anderson observe that his

―formal definition of poetry … echoes Horace‘s‖ (2000, p. 101). In addition, Ahsan reminds us that the view of literature as a teaching and entertaining art ―dates back to Horace‖ (2011, p. 1).

However, Sydney accords more importance to the didactic essence of literature than the Horatian concept in his insistence that poetry must work for human civilization. His theory thus ―reflects a humanistic worldview‖ (Lyndsays Scouthen, 1). Sydney and Horace are the kingpins of pragmatic theory. Horace, on the other hand, appears more pragmatic than Sydney who is idealistic.

Sydney‘s view is a Neo-Platonic principle. For him the ideal image displayed by poetry should ultimately work towards refinement and perfection of the degenerate human soul. Literature should work towards inculcating virtue (Paul, 2010, p. 1). For both Plato and Sidney, close communion with the ideal world advanced by literature facilitates virtuous living. The attention to virtue brings a Christian dimension to scholarship. Plato‘s chief objection to poetry is in Sydney‘s scholarship answered in full. Sydney again departs from Plato on the concept of imitation. Sydney assigns the role of a maker to the poet as against Plato‘s view of the artist as a servile copier of nature. For Sydney, poetry is thrice removed from the ideal, for Sydney poetry exploits the world of form and ideal in the creation of utopia for the promotion of virtue. The

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implication is that Sydney‘s thesis on imitation is a revision and regeneration of Plato‘s stance.

Please observe that imitation begins with Plato and ends with Sydney.

You can say the same about Plato and Horace. Have you observed how Sydney exploits the respective ideas of Plato, Aristotle and to a lesser degree, Horace, albeit differently? Aristotle provides a compatible foundation for his logic while Plato supplies a dissenting point of view.

You cannot but agree that both exert noticeable influences on Sydney. Again, following Aristotle, Sydney compares literature with other disciplines – History and Philosophy. Both scholars respectively hold that poetry deals with universality rather than particularity. In the words of Conway, Sidney positions literature in ―a hierarchical relationship with all other forms of learning; literature inhabits the highest and most influential tier‖ (1995, p. 1). The implication is that compared to both Philosophy and History, literature is a more excellent teacher. In this comparison Sidney establishes a key aspect of his defense, which is his idea of the position of literature within the scholarship of his periods.

In addition, Sydney, following Ariostotle, Longinus and Horace, classify as poetry all works realizable through linguistic artistry. In instituting standards for the construction of good poetry, Sydney pontificates on the nature of literature to exploit language in new ways. His view that Literature stretches the borders of language demanding it to cater for wider and abstract investigations for the wellbeing of man is very perceptive. Use of language is a dominant factor in literatures of regions, like Africa, where English is used as a second language. Nigerian literatures like Death and the King’s Horseman (drama), Roses and Bullets (fiction) and ‗A Song for Ajegunle‘ (poetry) by Soyinka, Adimora-Ezeigbo and Osundare, individually, demonstrate Sydney‘s thesis in their adroit manipulation of the English language. You should observe that language constitutes a major area of concern for the Renaissance critic, Sydney, in relation to use of Latin or vernacular in literary creativity. Renaissance is a typical aristocratic age and thus emphasised decorum. The period was chiefly characterised by individualism and worldliness as it witnessed the revitalization of classical Greek civilization.

Sydney‘s descriptions of literary genres and classification of texts also bear the identity of his age and exposure. In that society, each genre of literature attended to a particular class of people.

Tragedy was considered the best genre because it features noble characters while epic was usually employed in the treatment of national concerns. Tragedy was reserved to teach rulers

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moderation while comedy comforted the commons and epic is deployed to teach patriotism, mostly for warriors. Lyric poetry praised patrons of literature. His classification of different texts illustrates his knowledge of the Bible, Philosophy and Literature. Sydney was a Christian who wrote for a Christian audience. Sydney‘s in-depth knowledge serves as a lucid testimony of his background and exposure and prepared him to offer a potent defence against incessant attacks on literature.

DEFENCE

Sydney‘s contribution to the development of English Literary Criticism derives mainly from his defence of literature as it battles against several scholarly attacks beginning from Plato‘s.

Sidney‘s direct refutation of the accusations against poetry is the core of ―A Defence of Poetry‖

(Khamis, 2012, p. 5). If you study the accusation against poetry, as listed in Sydney‘s essay, you will discover that the first criticism interrogates the functional and moral benefits of poetry. Did you observe how Sydney invalidates that argument? He first projects the utilitarian essence of poetry as a pleasant instructor. Secondly, he displays poetry as a civilizing agent and this caters for its moral content. Sydney, in addition, drags the revered name of the poet into his logic to buttress his points. One thing this defence underscores is the didactic dimension of literature as an art form.

The second criticism is described by Richard Clark as ―an epistemological attack‖ (2005, p. 2).

You still remember that poetry is termed ‗mother of all lies‘ under this accusation. The implication is that the veracity of poetic content is questioned again after Plato‘s first assault.

Sydney‘s defence stresses the nature of poetry as fiction. For him it deals with universal truths;

probability rather than actuality. It never seeks to record facts. You should observe how this response illustrates the nature of literature as well as the mimetic approach in creative writing.

The third accusation is considered by some critics as ―the most serious.‖ Sydney did not totally refute this claim rather he admits that it has some merits. Sidney agrees that literature, like any other discipline, can and has undergone some forms of abuses. However, he insists that literature is a medium with the maximum prospect for the good. It is pragmatic and didactic and has some

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moral benefits in relation to promoting value and eliminating the repulsive. Sydney‘s position exhibits objectivity and a comprehension of man‘s capacity for both evil and good.

In his answer to the fourth charge that Plato banishes poetry from his Republic, Sydney employs two streams of logic. The first is the didactic function of literature and the second is its primacy in relation to Philosophy and History as an effective instructor. To set the distorted records right, Sydney identifies a particular class of poets who Plato seeks to banish based on the impact of their poetry on the Athenian youth. He equally presents Plato as a practical supporter of poetry in his extensive exploitation of poetic resources in his Socratic dialogue.

CRITICISM

‗An Apology of Poetry‘ ends with literary criticism. It exhibits Sydney‘s examination of selected writings available to his period. Sydney‘s analysis displays an unmasked approval of Renaissance Italian writers personified by Boccaccio, Dante and Petrarch, all renowned creative writers. He illustrates aversion for the then recently developed tragi-comedy. Sidney insists on the observance of the unities of time, place and action in English drama. His submission is influenced by the dearth of great dramatic works in English before his time. Elizabethan playwrights like Ben Jonson wrote Romantic tragedies that exhibit incongruent elements. Such plays exhibit the tendency to disregard unities and mix sadness and joy after the medieval convention. In addition, Abram notes that Shakespeare‘s tragedies, in conformity with other Elizabethan tragedies, ―depart radically from Aristotle‘s paradigm‖ by injecting comic relief which results in a ―mixed mode‖ – tragic-comedy (1999, p. 333). Sydney posits that Renaissance plays should conform to classical conventions and his view reopens the ancient dispute on the character of tragedy and comedy. He obviously admires the classical and considers the ancient tradition a veritable standard of literary creativity.

Note that Sydney‘s creative process entails imitation of nature but involves creativity. The impact of literature for him should stretch across the pleasurable and educational. Then a good poetic text must inculcate pictures of virtues and vices to encourage the audience choose the good and reject the not-so-good for the humanization of the society.

131 SELF-ASSESMENT EXERCISE 5

Undertake your own analysis of the key ideas of Sydney‘s argument guided by what you have learnt so far.