Estructura organización y funcional del Departamento de Desarrollo Productivo

175

Wordsworth has something to say on the nature and style of criticism. On taste and morality, he notes that different categories of critics and standards of criticism guide reader‘s attitude towards a particular work. He believes that the reader should be left to determine his own feelings towards a piece of writing as critical assumptions could obstruct his pleasure. Wordsworth believes that a good critic chooses his terms cautiously. To buttress his point, the theorist examines Johnson‘s poem and finds it limited. He however cautions that to describe such a poem as bad represents destructive criticism which he considers obstructive. He advises that it is better to describe the work as one which lacks sense, in terms of the matter discussed. Using the same poem, he warns against a type of ―false criticism‖ which elaborately states the obvious (254).

Wordsworth reminds critics that they are perhaps even more ―exposed to the same errors as the poet‖ (254). He finally states that his principle, if accepted, will cause a shift in methods of criticism in relation to both past and present works. He adds that this development will facilitate a refined moral feeling towards works of literature.

4.0 Further Analysis

176 4.2 Implications

If you have followed Wordsworth‘s argument very well you would have observed that he is basically interested in the nature and functions of literature. His proposal rests on content, style and language of literature. Wordsworth also speaks on the poet and poetry. His writing therefore covers the writer, the text and the audience and literature revolves around the three.

Wordsworth‘s position on the nature of poetry is very clear in his postulations on content and style. His view on content of literature illustrates his interest in nature and the marginalised. His insistence that a writer should imitate nature and human passions places his theory under the mimetic approach. Wordsworth‘s choice of subjects is radical because prior to the Romantic period, common natural elements and human emotions like seasons, sunshine, resentment and pain hardly receive any attention from writers. Again, the lowly is the traditional subject of comedy and is hardly assigned any noble role in serious literary works. Wordsworth elevates the lower class to a more dignified position by involving them in poetry. He thus shares the same interest with Marxism. Wordsworth‘s class sympathy obviously lies with the alienated. Oswald Mtshali, a South African poet, is interested in the alienated in his poem ‗Boy on the Swing‘.

The theorist‘s justification for his subject is that man and nature are better reflected in the lowly.

Richard Clark (2006, p. 1) notes that for Wordsworth ―the fundamental features of human consciousness … are easier to glimpse in simpler, less sophisticated sorts, that is, those who are untainted by wealth and city life.‖ You must understand that Wordsworth‘s position is a validation of the motto of French revolution anchored in Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. Based on the new artistic consciousness, previously ‗unpoetic‘ ideas were, for the first time, disciplined into the poetic structures and from different perspectives. For instance, while Wordsworth is concerned with the usual elements of life depicted in ‗The World is Too Much With Us‘, Coleridge is interested in the unusual as represented in ‗Kubla Khan‘. Wordsworth‘s theory thus extends the scope of literature from the perspective of content.

Wordsworth‘s justification of his choice of subject illustrates Romantic writers‘ attempt to seek relevance for poetry by showing interest in different aspects human passion and the close

177

relationship between man and his environment. For example, Shelley‘s ‗Ode to the West Wind‘

and Keats ‗Ode to a Nightingale‘ exhibit the ambivalence of human experience – the mixture of pleasure and pain in their highest intensities. ‗Preface to Lyrical Ballad‘ expresses the Romantic maxim ―return to nature‖. Let us bring it a bit closer. The relationship between man and nature is largely explored by contemporary African poets like the Nigerian Niyi Osundare. Osundare‘s collections, exemplified by The Eye of the Earth (1986), pay attention to the lowly and nature. A poem like ‗Ours to Plough not to Plunder‘ thematises the common and nature. Why not study the poem to ascertain the veracity of this observation.

Furthermore, Wordsworth‘s concern with the language of poetry is manifest in his discussion on styles. You can easily observe that he identifies not only what should be included but also what should be excluded in language use. He also covers both the linguistic and literary aspects of language use in literature. First, Wordsworth considers the Neo-Classical language as unnatural and sophisticated and thus obstructive. Again, his view expresses loyalty to the natural and common which he considers the most effective means of communication between the poet, in all genres, and his audience. Wordsworth‘s view that ―poets do not write for poets alone but for men (251) expands the audience base of creative writing. His position negates Christopher Okigbo‘s who insists that ―I write my poems for other poets; I don‘t write for non-poets!‖ (Biodun Jeyifo, 2008, p. 13). However, it is in tandem with Osundare‘s position that: ―Poetry is not the exoteric whisper of an excluding tongue not claptrap for a wandering audience … Poetry is no oracle‘s kernel for a sole philosopher‘s stone Poetry is man meaning to man‖ in his poem ‗Poetry Is‘

Songs of a Market Place, 1983, p. 3). Wordsworth stance that a writer ―must express himself as other men express themselves‖ in order to elicit sympathy (251) considers the reader‘s interest.

On the other hand, many previous critics including Longinus, Horace, Sidney, Dryden, and Pope postulate that good writers ought to employ lofty language, different from that of daily conversation. Standing with these critics, Coleridge counsels that the notion of common language is better applied to specific category of literature to maintain credibility and eschew prescriptivism. He also disagrees with Wordsworth‘s reading of Gray‘s sonnet. It must be added that in some of his works, including ‗Ode: Intimations of Immortality‘ and ‗Tintern Abbey‘, Wordsworth goes against his own linguistic principle. This demonstrates the gap between theory and practice. Nevertheless, his view on language exhibits an objective approach to criticism.

178

Wordsworth‘s position, you must know, display certain moderations. The first is his insistence that the common language of poetry be purified of inherent defects. Wordsworth‘s view here reechoes Dryden‘s position on language. Based on this moderation of language, can you now say that poetry still uses daily conversational language? Read Tarvin‘s answer below.

Poetry becomes not the real language of people, but a selection from this real language . … in practice the verse of Wordsworth does not reproduce the dialect or illiterate jargon of his humble characters, but it does employ a vocabulary and phrasing much closer to standard English speech than the ―poetic diction‖ used by many 18th-century English poets. (N.D p. 4).

Wordsworth‘s concept underscores the principle of selection in imaginative writing. Again, his view on figurative devices, poetic diction, synthetic expressions and clichés dislodges previous literary practice. The revolutionary tendencies could also be observed in Contemporary African Poetry. The poetic approach revises Christopher Okigbo‘s concept of the audience expressed in his declaration that: ―I write my poems for other poets; I don‘t write for non-poets!‖ (Biodun Jeyifo, Postcolonial Lamp, 13). Wordsworth‘s position could be considered a conscious reaction against the attempt to elevate poetry beyond the ordinary in order to keep it apart from other forms of literary expression and normal conversation. Thus, his rejection of archaisms, artificial metaphors and images represents an establishment of a novel class of poems whose appeals are easily deducible. Hence, by Wordsworth standard, Anglophone pioneer poets like Gladys Casey Hayford, whose works ―sound patently archaic‖ (Senanu and Vincent, 1976, p. 9) can hardly be counted among good poets.

The symbiotic relationship between content and style is encapsulated in Wordsworth‘s stand on engagement of metre according to passion represented in a work of literature. In that he advocates for different styles based on the subject. By now you must have observed that Wordsworth‘s idea of content and style is practical and novel. Clark (2006, p. 4) describes it as

―a materialist, earth-bound model of poetry that differs considerably from the idealist, other-worldly model …‖ The difference lies in Wordsworth‘s interest in the natural and human emotions expressed in ordinary tongue.

179

Moreover, Wordsworth‘s theory of literature provides a definition of a creative writer as it identifies his/her qualities and functions. Wordsworth‘s classification of the creative writer as a man speaking to men underscores the role of the writer as a mouthpiece of his/her world. Based on this view, a creative writer becomes a close observer rather than moralist. The implication is that Wordsworth theory expects the writer to function as an intermediary between nature and people. This defines the relationship between the writer and his/her audience as conceived by Wordsworth. Again, under this theory, a writer is perceived an unusually sensitive person with sufficient expressive skill for the pleasure of the audience. In other words, by Wordsworth‘s standard, a writer requires both talent and skill to provide pleasure for his/her audience.

Wordsworth‘s specification of the qualities of a poet is very telling. It illustrates his interpretation of the writer as a passionate, disciplined, observant, imaginative, knowledgeable and creative person with effective communication skills. Wordsworth‘s idea of the capacity of a poet to internally conjure up real and imagined passions depict the Romantics‘ believe in imagination as the basic faculty for creativity. By the creative faculty, the writer produces new reality by incorporating diverse elements. Wordsworth‘s theory as such expresses the interrelated functions of both imagination and expression in literary creativity. Another prominent Romantic scholar, Percy Bysshe Shelly, shares Wordsworth‘s position by postulating that literary artists

―imagine and express‖ (‗English Essays: From Sidney to Macaulay‘, 2001, p. 4). Shelly adds that:

The function of poetical faculty are twofold: by one it creates new materials of knowledge, and power, and pleasure; by the other it engenders in the mind a desire to reproduce and arrange them according to certain rhythm and order which may be called the beautiful and the good. (2001, p. 38)

Have you noticed the correspondence of ideas between Wordsworth and Shelly‘s respective theories of literature? Observe that in Wordsworth‘s view the creative writer, though placed among men, is outstanding and esteemed and this corresponds with Sydney‘s view.

Consequently, in the Romantic period the mind of the creative writer becomes a central consideration in creativity and this perspective conveys the expressive approach to criticism.

180

‗Preface to Lyrical Ballads‘ initiates this approach in criticism. The implication is that the Expressive function becomes the primary feature of the poetic process from Wordsworth.

Remember that the creative essence is not part of the Neo-classical concept of imagination. Note that Wordsworth demands so much from a writer. This is because he conceives the writer as a defender of humanity and that is a tasking role. That gives the writer a legislative function, albeit informally, within his society. You already know that in the early periods literary writers are classified ―legislators, or prophets‖. A creative writer seems to be both based on his/her concern with the present in order to propose a better future.

Furthermore, the definition, position and functions Wordsworth assigns to poetry communicates his view of literature. His definition locates the source of poetry in the writer‘s inner feelings.

Literature is therefore a function of emotion, feeling and temperament rather than regulations.

However, the expression of such feelings requires practice. Thus, his creative method suggests that skill is internally generated. Wordsworth thus eliminates the divine and unconscious perspective promoted by Plato as well as the Neo-classicists‘ rules. He introduces psychology and subjectivity into criticism and thus revolts against the Neo-classical inclination for objectivity in literature. Wordsworth‘s definition establishes the platform for the development of the expressive theory which is a major characteristic of the Romantics. John Keats, for instance, likens poets to spiders spinning words from its entrails. For him the poet imagines himself into every situation and he uses the term ‗empathy‘.

Wordsworth‘s definition caters for the two important aspects of literature – matter and manner.

The first part entails direct expression marked by spontaneity while the second involves indirect expression illustrated in recollection. This simply means that good poetry does not involve an abrupt expression of that powerful emotion. This brings us to the second leg of that definition,

―recollected in tranquility‖ which underscores the creative process. The second segment illustrates the process and condition that must take place for the powerful emotion to transmute into ideas. Adepitan (1991, p. 148) provides us with sufficient insight of that process. He notes that contemplation, which is ―rational, critical and selective‖ mediates as a process to produce the final piece which is similar but different from the original emotion which produces it. The implication is that it is only in tranquility that chaotic emotion can be tamed into art. However, T.S. Eliot in ―Tradition and Individual Talent‖ disagrees with Wordsworth and insists that poetry

181

is not ―emotion, nor recollection nor tranquility, nor spontaneity‖ but could be likened to concentration which implies ―a deliberate process.‖ It is important that you identify the merits in both arguments because this will aid your conclusions on Wordsworth theory of literature.

Based on Wordsworth‘s conception, creativity is a process. Have you taken note of the stages?

There are four stages of observation, recollection, sifting and composition. In other words, the creative process starts with perception and moves to serene reflection, after which comes sifting of irrelevancies and terminates in real composition. In addition, Wordsworth‘s concept of imitation entails creativity like Aristotle‘s and unlike Plato‘s. Wordsworth permits the poet to represent his subjects using certain ―colourings of Imagination.‖ Imagination is therefore an inevitable aspect of his creative process and this is in tandem with Romanticism which negates Neo-Classical emphasis on intellect. However, there are some meeting points between the two schools. Let us identify these. Emotion is given a central place in literature but it is recollected in tranquility. The second arm goes back to reason and creates a convergence of ideas between the Neo-classical and the Romantics. Please note how Wordsworth‘s definition delivers poetry from the Neo-classical separation of reason and feeling. Wordsworth thus advances a new framework for the practice of poetry in his period.

Moreover, Wordsworth‘s theory illustrates the dual function of literature in his identification of the aim of poetry which is to provide immediate pleasure and depict universal truth. Pleasure principle is the first consideration in Wordsworth concept of functions of a poet and poetry.

Wordsworth‘s view represents Dryden‘s position but reinterprets Plato‘s. To his credit, Wordsworth does not ignore the moral value of poetry in making the reader a better person and on that note he becomes one with Plato. Additionally, Wordsworth postulation on the appealing capacity of the universal truth which poetry reflects joins him to Samuel Johnson. Moreover, in placing poetry above all knowledge Wordsworth underscores its capacity to teach better than all other disciplines. This exhibits a didactic view of literature also expressed by Aristotle, Sydney and Keats. Sydney, for instance, considers poetry as ―the first light-giver to ignorance …‖

(Criticism: Major Statements, p. 102).

In addition, Wordsworth‘s concept of criticism involves the critic, the reader and the critical text.

182

His views raised very important issues. First, is the function of a critic as an objective guide to the reader as well as his obligation to either endorse or disapprove a literary piece. Next is the reader‘s right to personal evaluation of literary works. Wordsworth thus makes the reader a critic, even if at an amateurish level. Again is the duty of criticism to add a fresh perspective to a literary work and employ terms cautiously and judiciously. Additionally, the vulnerability of the critic is another important issue raised within this concept. Lastly, Wordsworth anticipates the revolutionary potentials of his theoretical essay and its refining effect shows his interest in the moral value of literature. You will find Laxmana Murthy‘s conclusion on Wordsworth concept of criticism very incisive. Read it carefully.

In his criticism of the limitations of the past and in his plan for the present and concern for the future, he has in his mind the undeniable obligation of criticism as part of a literary revolution. It has to establish the literary values in a world that sets a high premium on power and scientific methodicity. The critic must discover the avenues for existence and assert the unique validity of humanity. This critical principle has prompted Wordsworth to state his thoughts on poetry and its function clearly and cogently in his famous Preface to the second edition of Lyrical Ballads in 1800 (N.D. 1).

It should be clear to you at this point that Wordsworth‘s creative process involves imitation of nature and human passions as it includes creativity. His creative process emphasizes the poet and imagination. For him, poetic impact is pleasure-centered but does not completely ignore human edification. A good literary text, in Wordsworth‘s view, should be presented in an ordinary language divested of all vulgarities. Again, it should exhibit pleasantness and maturity and be free from irrelevances, cruelty, the ugly and the painful. This means that the Nigerian Odia Ofeimun‘s poem ‗How Can I Sing‘ (The Poet Lied) which presents an ugly ―landscape of putrefying carcasses‖ intensified by an image of ―giant vultures‖ hardly meets Wordsworth‘s approval. As we come to the end of this analysis, there are two points you must also observe.

One is Wordsworth‘s insistence that bad poetry injures poets‘ reputation. The other is his

183 disappointment with the writers of his period.

SELF ASSESMENT EXERCISE 4

Which other literary theorist pays attention to criticism and how is his view different from Wordsworth‘s?