Little is known about the national prevalence of IPA among non - heterosexual women.21 A fundamental challenge for researchers exploring SSIPA is obtaining a representative
sample (Burke & Follingstad, 1999; Murray & Mobley, 2009). Hence across different samples, methodologies, and time frames, studies have found a wide range of reported frequencies of relationship violence. The first systematic review on IPA in self-identified lesbians found that studies used five-time periods to establish the ‘prevalence’22 of LIPA victimisation comprising of current or most recent relationship, last year, last five years, lifetime, and examples where the time was not specified (Badenes-Ribera, et al., 2015). 23 Not surprisingly, prevalence rates were higher (40-50%) with studies that evaluated longer time periods. The experience of any form of IPA over the five different time periods ranged from 9.6 – 51.5 per cent, of current, or most recent relationship (9.6 - 37.5%); in the last year (12.2%); in the last 5 years (43.39%); and lifetime (42.4 - 51.5%).
Badenes -Ribera et al. (2016) found that the most frequently measured form of IPA was physical violence, with a prevalence ranging between 2.6 per cent (specific behaviour using a weapon) and 3 per cent for multiple forms of physical violence (as the only abuse between the couple), and 58 per cent. The experience of physical violence was reported as higher when received at some time in life (40-50%) as compared with prevalence rates for physical violence in the most recent relationship (between 9 and 17%). Economic abuse was the least evaluated aspect of IPA, with a reported range within one study as 46 per cent (lesbians) and 33 per cent (gay women).
Emotional psychological abuse was the second most evaluated form of abuse, with prevalence ranging from 7.4 per cent for stalking, to between 18 – 64.5 per cent for emotional/psychological/verbal abuse as the only form of abuse between the couple. When studies defined emotional abuse and included the ‘threats to out a partner’ as a form of abuse, higher prevalence rates were reported between 31 – 84 per cent. The prevalence of sexual violence ranged between 0.6 per cent for non-consensual sex or sexual torture as the only form of violence between the couple, and between 2.2 – 56.8 per cent for sexual assault. The review also found a perpetration rate between 17-75 per cent (Badenes-Ribera et al., 2016).24
22 The review analysed studies that used convenience samples.
23 The review analysed 14 studies of self-identified lesbians, analysed separately from other groups in the
samples that specified the gender of the perpetrator.
24 Using a nationally representative sample of 1,925 lesbians from every state in the US, to examine the
prevalence and mental health sequelae of child sexual abuse, rape, IPA, and hate crimes. Descamps et al. (2000) reported that older age was related to the greater prevalence of IPA victimisation.
The issues with the reported frequencies and the disparity displayed with the results stated above are that they are not representative samples. All of the studies included in the Badenes-Ribera et al, (2016) review were based on convenience samples. The authors acknowledged further limitations with the LIPA literature including, definitions of abuse and forms of violence used to measure IPA, not examining the relationship between minority stress and IPA, not measuring ‘homophobic control’ (a specific psychological tactic of SSIPA), and not incorporating the influence of heterosexism in the analysis of LIPA.
Studies that use representative samples demonstrate conflicting results when non- heterosexual women are compared with heterosexual women’s experience of IPA. For example, the National US Violence Against Women Survey (NVAW) found that 11 per cent of women in same sex relationships reported being physically assaulted and/or stalked, and raped by a female partner.25 This was compared to 30.4 per cent of women reporting such violence with a male partner (Tjaden & Thonnes, 2000).26 While acknowledging the need for further research, the authors suggest that their findings indicate that IPA is more prevalent in heterosexual contexts. In contrast, Walters et al. (2013) prevalence data show that individuals identified as lesbian, bisexual, and gay experienced more physical, sexual, and emotional abuse than those identifying as heterosexual. The lifetime prevalence rate of rape, physical violence and/or stalking by an intimate partner reported was 61.1 per cent for bisexual women, 43.8 per cent for lesbians, and 35 per cent for heterosexual women.27 Similarly, Messinger’s (2011) secondary data analysis of the National Violence Against Women Survey found that LGB persons were more likely to experience IPA than heterosexuals.28
25 A limitation with the Tjaden and Thonnes (2000) data is that respondents were not asked about their
sexual orientation, the survey asked whether they had ever lived with a same sex partner as part of a couple.
26 The survey consists of telephone interviews with a nationally representative sample of 8000 men and
8000 women. 1 per cent of women (n=79) and 0.8 per cent of men (n=65) reported living with a same sex partner at one point in their lives. The survey also compares victimisation rates between men and women, same sex, and opposite-sex couples, and with specific racial groups (Hispanics and non-Hispanic).
27 Walters et al. (2013) completed interviews with 16, 507 adults (9,086 female and 7,421 male). The sexual
orientation of the sample included 96.5 per cent females identified as heterosexual, 2.2 per cent bisexual, and 1.3 percent lesbian. For males, 96.8 per cent identified as heterosexual, 1.2 per cent bisexual, and 2.0 per cent gay.
28 Messinger (2011) analysed a nationally representative sample of 14,182 adults (7,257 females and 6,295
What is clear from the US prevalence data is that bisexual women report higher frequencies of IPA than both lesbian and heterosexual women. For example, using the California Health Interview Survey, Goldberg and Meyer (2013) found that bisexual women reported higher rates of victimisation in couple violence in the past year (27.48%) and at some time in life (51.99%) than lesbian women (10.23% and 31.87%).29 Walters et al. (2013) found 61 per cent of bisexual women, 44 per cent of lesbian women, and 35 per cent of heterosexual women experienced physical violence, stalking or rape as a result of IPA.30 In contrast to the prevalence studies, Turell’s (2000) US convenience sample (n=499) with LGBT individuals reported that bisexuals experienced less IPA than gays and lesbians.
The available US prevalence data indicate that most perpetrators of IPA and sexual violence are male (Tjaden & Thonnes, 2000; Walters et al., 2013). Prevalence data available on perpetrators of IPA shows that bisexual women primarily experienced IPA from male partners, and sexual violence to lesbian and bisexual women was mainly experienced from male perpetrators (Walters et al., 2013).31 Messinger (2011) reported that IPA was most commonly reported by bisexuals with opposite-sex partners. Thus, the high levels of IPA reported for bisexual and lesbian women were not necessarily within a same sex relationship.
As previously mentioned, there is no national prevalence data available concerning non- heterosexual women’s experience of IPA. There is, however, prevalence data to explain this populations experience of violence and abuse at the EU level. The chapter proceeds to discuss the results from two large-scale European studies involving an Irish LGBT sample, the European Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) LGBT survey (2012), and the Violence Against Women: an EU-Wide Survey (2014).
29 The California Health Interview Survey (2007-2008) comprised of 51,048 adults. Only adults ages 70 or
younger were asked to describe their sexual orientation (n=31,632) resulting in (16, 926 females and 14,089 males). The sexual orientation of the female sample comprised of 96.5% heterosexual, 1.5% lesbian, 1.4% bisexual and 0.5% women who have sex with women (WSW).
30 NISVS data: 26% for gay men, 29% for heterosexual men, and 37.3% for bisexual men