De acuerdo a lo establecido en la Sección Primera de los Impuestos de la presente Ley, se establecen los siguientes estímulos fiscales:

as witches in the infamous witch trails in Salem, massa- chusetts. Gallows Hill has been believed to be haunted ever since the trials in 1692–93. Nineteen men and women were hanged from the trees at Gallows Hill. The site was long considered the meeting grounds for witches at annual sAbbAts. It also was oracular: young persons

who wished to know their future in marriage, and the identities of their future spouses, would go to Gallows Hill at night and listen for the answers to be revealed to them by the ghosts of the dead witches. Whenever an important event was about to happen, the neighborhood would be filled with the screechings and screamings of the haunting witches (see ghosts, hAuntIngs And wItChCrAFt). Gallows Hill is now a residential area.

See SAlem WItChes.

Gardner, Gerald B(rousseau) (14–1964) English

Witch and founder of contemporary Witchcraft as a reli- gion. As much myth as truth surrounds Gerald B. Gard- ner. Some of the truth about his motivations and actions may never be known. The posthumous assessment of him is that he was a con man and an artful dissembler, yet he had great vision and creativity and was willing to try outrageous things. The religion that he helped to launch and shape has evolved far beyond what he is likely to have forseen.

Hereditary Witches and practitioners of family tradi- tion witchcraft object to Gardner being credited as the

“founder” of the religion of Witchcraft, claiming that family traditions have existed for centuries. Nonethe- less, there is no evidence that an organized religion of Witchcraft—not simply traditions of folk and ceremonial magic mixed with occultism and fragments of pagan tra- ditions—existed prior to Gardner.

Gardner was born into a well-to-do family in Blundell- sands, near Liverpool, England, on Friday, June 13, 1884. His father was a merchant and justice of the peace, a mem- ber of a family that had made money in the timber trade. According to Gardner, the family’s roots could be traced to Grissell Gairdner, who was burned as a witch in 1610 in Newburgh. Gardner’s grandfather married a woman reputed to be a witch, and some of Gardner’s distant relatives were purported to have psychic gifts. Gardner’s ancestral family tree also included mayors of Liverpool and Alan Gardner, a naval commander and later vice admiral and peer, who dis- tinguished himself as commander in chief of the Channel fleet and helped to deter the invasion of Napoleon in 1807.

The middle of three sons, the young Gardner was raised primarily by the family’s nurse and governess, Josephine “Com” mcCombie. He suffered severely from asthma. Com convinced his parents to let her take him traveling during the winters to help alleviate his condi- tion. Com roamed about Europe, leaving Gardner to spend much time by himself reading. When Com mar- ried a man who lived in Ceylon, Gardner traveled there with her and worked on a tea plantation. Later, he moved to Borneo and then malaysia to work.

In the Far East, he became fascinated with the local religious and magical beliefs, and was drawn to ritual daggers and knives, especially the mayalsian kris, a dag-

ger with a wavy blade. He later wrote a book, Kris and Other Malay Weapons, published in Singapore in 1939. It

was reprinted posthumously in England in 1973.

From 1923 to 1936, Gardner worked in the Far East as a civil servant for the British government as a rubber plantation inspector, customs official and inspector of opium establishments. He made a considerable sum of money in rubber, which enabled him to dabble in a field of great interest to him, archaeology. He claimed to have found the site of the ancient city of Singapura.

In 1927 he married an Englishwoman, Donna. The two returned to England upon his retirement from gov- ernment work in 1936. Gardner spent much time on vari- ous archaeological trips around Europe and Asia minor. In Cyprus he found places he had dreamed about previ- ously, which convinced him he had lived there in a previ- ous life.

His second book, A Goddess Arrives, a novel set in Cy-

prus and concerning the worship of the Goddess as Aph-

rodite in the year 1450 b.C.e., was published in 1939.

In England Gardner became acquainted with the people who introduced him to the Craft. The Gardners lived in the New Forest region, where Gardner became involved with the Fellowship of Crotona, an occult group of Co-masons, a masonic order established by mrs. Be- sant Scott, daughter of Theosophist Annie Besant. The group had established “The First rosicrucian Theater in England,” which put on plays with occult themes. One of the members told Gardner they had been together in a previous life and described the site in Cyprus of which Gardner had dreamed.

Within the Fellowship of Crotona was another, se- cret group, which drew Gardner into its confidence. The members claimed to be hereditary Witches who prac- ticed a Craft passed down to them through the centu- ries, unbroken by the witch-hunts of the middle Ages and renaissance. The group met in the New Forest. Just days before World War II began in 1939, Gardner was initiated into the coven in the home of old dorothy

ClutterbuCk.

Gardner was intensely interested in mAgIC and witch-

craft and invested much time in extending his network of contacts in occultism. He collected material on magical procedures, especially ceremonial magic, which he put together in an unpublished manuscript entitled Ye Bok of ye Art Magical.

In 1946, he met CeCIl wIllIAmson, the founder of the Witchcraft research Centre and museumoF WItCh- CrAFt. In 1947, he was introduced to AleIster Crowley

by Arnold Crowther. Gardner was especially inter- ested in gleaning whatever he could from Crowley, who by then was in poor health and only months away from death. Gardner obtained magical material from Crowley. From this and other sources, he compiled his bookoF shAdows, a collection of rituals and Craft laws. Gardner claimed to have received a fragmentary book of shadows from his New Forest coven.

Crowley made Gardner an honorary member of the Ordo Templi Orientis (OTO), a Tantric sex magic order at one time under Crowley’s leadership, and granted Gard- ner a charter to operate an OTO lodge.

Gardner was prevented from being too public about Witchcraft because it was still against the law in England. He disguised his book of shadows in a novel, High Magic’s Aid, published in 1949 under the pseudonym Scire. The

novel concerns worship of “the old gods” but mentioned by name only Janicot. The Goddess had yet to make a ma- jor appearance in Gardner’s Craft—although he said that his coven worshiped the Goddess by the name of Airdia or Areda (see ArAdIA).

The anti-witchcraft law was repealed in 1951. Gardner broke away from the New Forest coven and established his own.

Gerald B. Gardner, taken at the wedding of Arnold and Patricia C. Crowther on November 9, 1960 (PHOTO BY DAILY ExPRESS;

COUrTESY DAILY ExPRESS AND PATrICIA C. CrOWTHEr)

He became involved in Williamson’s museum of Witchcraft in Castletown on the Isle of man, officiating at its opening and serving for a time as its “resident Witch.” In 1952, he bought the museum buildings and display cases from Williamson and operated his own museum.

In 1953 Gardner initiated doreen VAlIente into his

coven. Valiente substantially reworked his book of shad- ows, taking out most of the Crowley material because his “name stank” and giving more emphasis to the Goddess. From 1954 to 1957 Gardner and Valiente collaborated on writing ritual and nonritual material, a body of work which became the authority for what became known as the Gardnerian tradition.

Gardner’s first nonfiction book on the Craft, Witchcraft Today, was published in 1954. It supports anthropologist

mArgAret A. murrAy’s now meritless theory that modern Witchcraft is the surviving remnant of an organized Pa- gan religion that existed during the witch-hunts. murray wrote the introduction for Gardner’s book. The immediate success of Witchcraft Today led to new covens springing

up all over England and vaulted Gardner into the pub- lic arena. He made numerous media appearances, and the press dubbed him “Britain’s Chief Witch.” He loved being

in a media spotlight, which cast him in the curious posi- tion of initiating people into a “secret” tradition that was then spread all over the tabloids. The publicity, much of it negative, led to a split in his coven in 1957, with Valiente and others going separate ways.

In 1959 Gardner published his last book, The Meaning of Witchcraft. In 1960 he was invited to a garden party

at Buckingham Palace in recognition of his distinguished civil service work in the Far East. The same year, his wife (who never joined the Craft or participated in any of its activities) died, and he began to suffer again from asthma. In 1963, shortly before he left for Lebanon for the winter, he met rAymond buCklAnd, an Englishman

who had moved to America and who would introduce the Gardnerian tradition to the United States. Gardner’s high priestess, monIque wIlson (Lady Olwen), initiated Buckland into the Craft.

On Gardner’s return home from Lebanon by boat in 1964, he suffered heart failure and died at the breakfast table on board the ship on February 12. He was buried ashore in Tunis on February 13.

In his will, Gardner bequeathed the museum, his rit- ual tools and objects, notebooks and the copyrights of his

Gardner’s house in Malew Street, Castletown, Isle of Man. House is on right. The barn, at left, held Gardner’s covenstead on the upper floor and a workshop on the ground floor, where Gardner made his magical tools. Patricia C. Crowther and others were initiated in the covenstead. (PHOTO BY IAN LILLEYmAN; COUrTESY PATrICIA C. CrOWTHEr)

books to Wilson. Other beneficiaries of his estate were pAtrICIA C. Crowther and Jack L. Bracelin, author of

a biography on Gardner, Gerald Gardner: Witch (1960).

Wilson and her husband operated the museum for a short time and held weekly coven meetings in Gardner’s cot- tage. They then closed the museum and sold much of the contents to the ripley organization, which dispersed the objects to its various museums. Some of the items have since been resold to private collections.

Valiente describes Gardner as a man “utterly without malice,” who was generous to a fault and who possessed some real, but not exceptional, magical powers. His mo- tives were basically good and he sincerely wanted to see “the Old religion” survive. Others, such as Williamson, saw him as manipulative and deceitful, not above fabri- cation in order to accomplish his objectives: to establish an acceptable venue for his personal interests in naturism and voyeuristic sex. (Gardner was a nudist, and the ritual nudity in the Craft is likely to have been one of his inven- tions; hereditary Witches say they have worked robed.)

Unfortunately, Gardner’s personal papers prior to 1957 no longer exist. He destroyed them at Valiente’s urging during the aforementioned period of unfavorable publicity.

From the 1960s onward, Witchcraft, the religion, con- tinued to grow and spread around the world. Initially, new Witches accepted Gardner’s assertion of an old and unbroken heritage, but that was soon exposed as un- founded. The Gardnerian tradition has inspired other tra- ditions, and Witchcraft has taken on a life of its own as a predominantly Goddess-centered mystery religion, part of a larger reconstruction and revival of PAgAnIsm.

Whatever his flaws and foibles, Gardner deserves re- spect and credit for what he started. As scholar ronald Hutton notes, contemporary Witchcraft, or Wicca, is the only religion that England has ever given to the world. FurtherreAdIng:

Adler, margot. Drawing Down the Moon. revised ed. New

York: Viking, 1986.

Bracelin, J. L. Gerald Gardner: Witch. London: Octagon Press,

1960.

Crowther, Patricia. Witch Blood! New York: House of Collec-

ticles, Inc., 1974.

Farrar, Janet, and Stewart Farrar. The Witches’ Way: Prin- ciples, Rituals and Beliefs of Modern Witchcraft. Custer,

Wash.: Phoenix Publishing, 1988.

Gardner, Gerald B. Witchcraft Today. London: rider & Co.,

1954, 1956.

———. The Meaning of Witchcraft. New York: magickal

Childe, 1982. First published 1959.

Hutton, ronald. The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Mod- ern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1996.

kelly, Aidan A. Crafting the Art of Magic Book I: A History of Modern Witchcraft, 1939–1964. St. Paul: Llewellyn Publi-

cations, 1991.

Valiente, Doreen. The Rebirth of Witchcraft. London: robert

Hale, 1989.

garlic A protection against witches, demons, vampires,

the eVIleye and other dark supernatural forces, and an ingredient in folk heAlIng remedies. Garlands of garlic worn around the neck or hung in a house are said to ward off evil spirits, creatures and spells. In mexico, the

ajo macho is a huge garlic, sometimes as big as a baseball,

used exclusively as an Amulet against evil in general,

but not against specific Curses, which require their own

special remedies. According to custom, the ajo macho

will work only if it is given as a gift, not if it is bought. In Europe, the phrase “here’s garlic in your eyes” is said to ward off the evil eye.

In times past, garlic was used to prove guilt. Sus- pects tossed garlic cloves into a fire; the one whose clove popped was guilty.

In healing folklore, garlic is widely reputed for its ability to cure and prevent colds and other ailments. It is baked in bread, ground into powder and made into lini- ment. Ancient roman soldiers wore garlic into battle for extra courage. In ancient Greece and rome, garlic was placed at CrossroAds as an offering to HeCAte, the god- dess of wItChCrAFt and the night. Odysseus used garlic as protection against the witchcraft of CIrCe, who turned

his men into swine. FurtherreAdIng:

Leach, maria, ed., and Jerome Fried, assoc. ed. Funk & Wag- nall’s Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology and Leg- end. New York: Harper & row, 1972.

garters Ornaments with magical properties, and in

contemporary Witchcraft, sometimes worn in various rituals and as badges of rank. Garters may have been used in rituals in Paleolithic times: an ancient cave paint- ing in northeastern Spain portrays nine women, wearing pointed headdresses, dancing in a circle around a naked man, who wears a cord or garter tied under each knee.

Garters are prominent in folklore and folk mAgIC. The

color of a garter carries special meaning. Green, for ex- ample, is the color of FAIrIes and robin Hood. Garters are worn by morris dancers, and “Green Garters” is the name of an old tune used in morris dancing. red is pro- tection against bewitchment; sIlVer is associated with the moon.

In witch trials, garter, or “pointes,” were associated with the DeVIl. Accused witches often described the Devil’s clothing as being tied with garters, as in this description by margaret Johnson of Lancashire in 1633: “. . . a spirit or divell in the similtude and proportion of a man, apparelled in a suite of black, tyed about with silke pointes.” mArgAret A. murrAy, a British anthropologist,

said that the garter was a secret symbol of identification among medieval witches; however, no evidence exists that witches were widely or uniformly organized.

In WICCA, the garter is the emblem of the high priest- ess of the Craft. Some garters are made of green snakeskin or leather, or green or blue velvet, and decorated with a silver buckle.

See OrderoFthe GArter.

FurtherreAdIng:

Farrar, Janet, and Stewart Farrar. A Witches Bible Compleat.

New York: magickal Childe, 1984.

murray, margaret A. The Witch-Cult in Western Europe. Lon-

don: Oxford University Press, 1921.

Gaufridi, Father Louis See AIx-en-ProVenCe Pos- sessIons.

ghosts, hauntings and witchcraft Hauntings by ghosts

and poltergeists are sometimes blamed on witches and witchcraft, particularly in areas where fear of mAgIC runs high. In Brazil, for example, where fear of magic is strong among the working class, many cases of poltergeist activ- ity are attributed to witches’ Curses laid on families.

The notion that witches were responsible for ghosts and hauntings took root on the Continent and in the British Isles after the Protestant reformation of the 16th centu- ry. The belief that dead men walk the earth as ghosts has been universal since ancient times. The Catholic Church used ghosts to its own ends, teaching that they were the souls of those stuck in purgatory, who could not rest until they atoned for their sins, and that they were sent by God to roam the realm of the living. The reformation rejected the concept of purgatory and said all souls went straight to heaven or hell, from which they never emerged. This required a new explanation for ghosts. In general, the Prot- estant church denied their existence, claiming that ghosts were a Catholic fraud used to manipulate the masses. Those who did see ghosts were led to think that they were caused by the deVIl, demons and witches, who also were

manipulating the populace in a battle for souls. Two camps formed: those who dismissed ghosts as foolishness and those who saw ghosts as proof of demonic forces.

JAmes I of England, who said there existed a “feareful

abounding” of witches in the land, gave credit to the Dev- il for all ghosts. Witches, being viewed as the servants of the Devil, were automatically connected to apparitions and hauntings. During the 17th century, hauntings often were blamed on the witchcraft of malicious neighbors or relatives. It was not uncommon to call upon the services of another witch or wIzArd to exorcise the haunting (see exorCIsm).

The Drummer of Tedworth. One of the most famous cases

of alleged witchcraft-caused hauntings was a poltergeist case, the Drummer of Tedworth, which took place in England in 1661. In march of that year, the drummer had been annoying the town of Ludgarshall, Wiltshire, with his drum beating. John mompesson, of the neighbor- ing town of Tedworth (formerly Tidworth), had the man

taken before the justice of the peace. The drum was con- fiscated, and given to mompesson to secure in his own home. The drummer persuaded the constable to release him, and he left the area.

In April, during mompesson’s absence, a violent storm of poltergeist activity erupted in his house, frightening his wife, children and servants. It began with a drum- ming noise heard outside the house and on top of it, which then moved indoors to the room where the confis- cated drum was kept. For more than two years, this and other bizarre phenomena occurred at irregular intervals, creating widespread interest and drawing curious visi- tors. The children and servants saw apparitions and the younger children were levitated in their beds. Some of the lesser phenomena—scratchings and pantings heard near the children’s beds—were heard by Joseph Glanvil, who chronicled the case in Saducismus Triumphatus (1668).