dead bush with the limbs cropped, decorated with dozens or perhaps hundreds of blown eggs. The bush is set in the ground near a cabin and is said to ward off witches.
elder In PAgAnIsm and WICCA, one who has attained a
high level of respect for his or her experience and skill. In Wicca, an elder does not necessarily have to be of the third, or highest, degree of rank; she or he may be a first- degree witch (see InItIAtIon; wItChes). most elders, however, are third-degree Witches who have been in the Craft a long time. Elders are consulted in policy deci- sions and interpretations of Craft laws and traditions.
See CoVen.
elementals Spirits that personify the four elements—
earth, air, fire and water. The term elementals also is applied to nAture spIrIts, which exist in all things in
nature and look after animals, insects, birds, rocks and plants. Elementals are summoned to assist in mAgIC
related to nature.
Earth elementals are known as gnomes; fire as sala- manders; water as undines; and air as sylphs. They can be seen clairvoyantly if a person has good attunement to the nature realm. Numerous elemental sightings have been reported at the CIrCle SAnCtuAry at mt. Horeb, Wiscon- sin. The pioneers of the Findhorn community in northern Scotland achieved remarkable gardening results reput- edly by communicating with elementals.
Some elementals are said to be malicious and unpre- dictable, tricking human beings into accidents, setting traps for them and killing them. Wicca emphasizes work- ing with friendly elementals in the creation of positive magic.
Artificial elemental is a term occasionally used for thought-form, a being of energy ritually created through
intense will, which is programmed to carry out assign- ments and disintegrate once the work is done.
elements The four elements of nature—earth, air,
water and fire—form the foundation of natural mAgIC.
The elements are associated with the cardinal points of the mAgICCIrCle and with a hierarchy of spirits—beings called elementAls.
In Western occultism, the four elements are considered the basis of all life, not only on the planet but throughout the universe as well, linking humankind to nature, the heavens and the divine, and governing mankind’s well- being. In the ancient mysteries, the rays of celestial bodies become the elements when they strike the crystallized in- fluences of the lower world. The elements figured promi- nently in the magic of the ancient Egyptians and Greeks, who ascribed to each one various attributes and character- istics. Plato divided all beings into four groups based on the elements—air/birds, water/fish, earth/pedestrians and fire/stars—all of which are interrelated. The magicians and alchemists of the middle Ages ascribed elements to external and internal parts of the human body; various
gems, minerals and metals; planets and constellations; the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse; various species of the animal and plant kingdoms; human personality traits; and geometrical shapes. roger Flud (1574–1637), alche- mist and astrologer, related the elements to harmonics, while another renaissance alchemist, Sisismund Bactrom, believed that if all the elements could be harmonized and united, the result would be the Philosopher’s Stone. This is represented by the fifth element, spirit, which Carl G. Jung called the quinta essentia.
The mithraic mysteries hold that man must rule the elements before he can attain spiritual wisdom; accord- ingly, he must successfully undergo the initiations of earth, air, water and fire, each of which test a different aspect of his nature and being.
Some of the major correspondences of the elements are:
Earth: The north; the pentacle; female principle; fertility;
darkness, quiet; practicality; thrift; acquisition; patience; responsibility; boredom; stagnation; the materialization of cosmic powers; the color green; the metal gold.
Air: The east, the wand (in some traditions, the sword
and athame); male principle; intellect, energy, endeavor; sociability; squandering, frivolity; the expression of the magician’s will; the color yellow; the metal silver.
Water: The west; the cup, challice and cauldron;
female principle; fecundity; body fluids; magical brews; the rhythms of nature; emotions, sensitivity, receptivity; instability, indifference; the color blue; the metal silver.
Fire: The south; the sword or athame (in some tradi-
tions, the wand); male principle; action, courage, defense against hostile forces; struggle, animosity, jealousy, anger; the color orange; the metal gold.
Center: Connection to cosmos; the Self; the mystic
Center; the All That Is.
FAmIlIArs are considered sources of vital elemental
energy. ritual tools and objects are consecrated with the four elements, by placing them on or touching them with a pentacle, passing them over a candle flame and a censer (air) and sprinkling them with salted water (see wItChes’
tools). When a magic circle is cast, it is consecrated and
purified with the elements. Each element or its symbol is taken to its corresponding quarter, and its guardian spirit is invoked.
FurtherreAdIng:
Crowley, Vivianne. Wicca: The Old Religion in the New Mil- lennium. revised ed. London: Thorsons/Harper Collins,
1996.
Farrar, Janet, and Stewart Farrar. A Witches Bible Compleat.
New York: magickal Childe, 1984.
elf arrows Arrowhead-shaped flints from the Stone Age
found in many parts of the British Isles, Europe and northern Africa, which witches supposedly used as weap- ons against animals and people. Elf-arrow superstitions predominate in Ireland, Scotland and parts of England, where fairy lore is strong (see FAIrIes). According to lore, many witches learn their craft from fairies and elves.
Elf arrows are said to be fatal to cattle, a common tar- get of witches. Stricken cattle can be saved by touching them with the arrow, then dipping the arrow into water and giving the water to the cattle to drink. The term elf- shot is still applied to sick animals.
A person shot with an elf arrow supposedly comes down with mysterious and fatal supernatural illnesses. The use of elf arrows was among the accusations of witch- craft brought in 1560 against a Scottish woman, Catherine ross, Lady Fowllis, and her son-in-law, Hector munro. The two were part of a group of witches who conspired to kill ross’ husband and marjory Campbell, Lady Balna- gowan, so that ross and Lord Balnagowan could marry. The witches were charged with “the making of two clay pictures, one for the destruction of the young Lady Balna- gowan, and getting them enchanted, and shooting of elf- arrow heads at the said persons.” Apparently the witches’ plot was uncovered before the victims were killed.
See Isobel gowdIe.
FurtherreAdIng:
maple, Eric. The Dark World of Witches. New York: A.S.
Barnes & Co., 1962.
esbat The regular meeting of a CoVen of Witches at
which religious worship is conducted, business is dis- cussed and mAgIC and heAlIng work is done.
The frequency of esbats depends on the coven. most covens meet at the full moon, which occurs 13 times a year. They may also meet at the new moon. Some meet weekly.
Salamander, an elemental of fire (mICHAEL mAIEr,
SCRUTINIUM CHYMICUM, 1687)
The esbat may take place indoors or outdoors. A coven may have a regular meeting place or rotate it among the homes of coveners. The coveners may wear loose clothing such as robes, or they may be skyclad (nude).
Animals belonging to coveners usually are allowed to be present at an esbat and to come and go as long as they do not disturb the energy flow of the rItuAls and magic
work. Animals are not used as sacrifices.
At the end of the esbat, coveners share food and drink (see CAkes-And-wIne).
The term esbat is a modern one. It may have been
coined by mArgAret A. murrAy, a British anthropologist
who wrote about medieval witchcraft as an organized pa- gan religion. most Wiccans use the term circle rather than esbat for their regular meeting; esbat is used formally.
FurtherreAdIng:
Buckland, raymond. Buckland’s Complete Book of Witchcraft.
St. Paul: Llewellyn Publications, 1986.
Farrar, Janet, and Stewart Farrar. A Witches Bible Compleat.
New York: magickal Childe, 1984.
evil eye The causing of illness, misfortune, calamity
and death by the looks of strangers and by envious looks. Amulets and incantations (see ChArms) ward the danger off.
The evil eye exists around the world, dating to ancient times. The oldest recorded references to it appear in the cuneiform texts of the Sumerians, Babylonians and Assyr- ians, about 3000 b.C.e. The ancient Egyptians believed in
the evil eye and used eye shadow and lipstick to prevent it from entering their eyes or mouths. The Bible makes references to it in both the Old and New Testaments. It is among ancient Hindu folk beliefs. Evil-eye superstitions have remained strong into modern times, especially in mediterranean countries such as Italy and in mexico and Central America.
There are two kinds of evil eye: deliberate and invol- untary. most cases of evil eye are believed to occur invol- untarily; the person casting it does not mean to do it and probably isn’t even aware of it. No revenge is sought for this hazard.
malevolent, deliberate evil eye is called “overlooking” and is a form of witchcraft that can bring about misfor- tune or catastrophe: illness, poverty, injury, loss of love, even death. Witches were said to give anyone who crossed them the evil eye and to use it to bewitch judges from convicting them.
The involuntary evil eye typically occurs when someone, especially a stranger, admires one’s children, livestock or possessions, or casts a lingering look on anyone. Unless immediate precautions are taken, the children get sick, the animals die, the possessions are stolen or good fortune in business turns sour. If the evil eye cannot be warded off, the victim must turn to an initiate—usually an older woman in the family—who knows a secret cure.
Besides envious glances, the evil eye comes from strangers in town, or anyone who has unusual or dif- ferent-colored eyes—a blue-eyed stranger in a land of brown-eyed people, for example. Some unfortunate souls are said to be born with permanent evil eye, laying waste to everything they see. High-ranking people such as no- blemen or clergy sometimes are believed to be afflicted like this. Pope Pius Ix (1846–78) was branded as having the evil eye shortly after his investiture as Pope in 1869. Driving through rome in an open car, he glanced at a nurse holding a child in an open window. minutes later, the child fell to its death, and from then on, it seemed that everything the Pope blessed resulted in disaster. Pope Leo xIII (1878–1903) was also said to possess the mal occhio,
as the evil eye is known in Italy.
The evil eye is most likely to strike when one is hap- piest; good fortune, it seems, invites bad fortune. Small
Hand positions to ward off the evil eye (FrOm FrEDErICk THOmAS ELWOrTHY’S THE EVIL EYE, 1895)
children and animals are especially vulnerable. In many villages, it is considered unwise to show children too much in public or to call attention to their beauty. Like- wise, it is not advisable to display possessions or brag about successes.
In 19th-century Ireland, animals who were under the influence of the evil eye were said to have been “blinked.” In order to save such animals, local wise women were sought for ritual cures.
The primary defense against the evil eye is an amulet, which may be fashioned from almost any kind of mate- rial. Common shapes are frogs and horns, the latter of which suggests both the powerful mother Goddess (a bull is her consort) and the phallus. Another popular amulet is the “fig,” a clenched fist with thumb thrust between the index and middle fingers, which also suggests a phallus.
The roots of the phallus amulet go back to the ancient romans and their phallic god, Priapus. Another name for him was Fascinus, from fascinum, which means “witch-
craft”; the evil eye is sometimes called “fascination.” romans employed phallic symbols as their protection against the evil eye. In Italy, it is still common for men to grab their genitals as a defense against the evil eye or anything unlucky.
The ancient Egyptians used an eye to fight an eye. The
udjat eye, also called the Eye of God and Eye of Horus,
appears on amulets, pottery and in art, warding off the forces of darkness.
Other defenses include bells and red ribbons tied to
livestock, horse harnesses and the underwear of children, which divert the attention of the evil eye. Gardens are surrounded by protective jack beans. Other plants act as amulets—the shamrock in Ireland and gArlIC in Greece.
In Hindu lore, barley, a universal remedy supplied by the gods and the symbol of the thunderbolt of Indra, god of war, thunder and storms, will avert the evil eye.
Without an amulet, quick action is important when the evil eye strikes. One should make gestures such as the “fig” or “horns” (holding up the index and little fin- ger). Spitting is a powerful remedy, a hold-over from the ancient romans and Greeks.
Cures for the evil eye usually involve reciting secret incantations, which typically are passed on from mother to daughter within a family. In Italy, an initiate diagnoses the evil eye and performs the cure with a bowl of wa- ter, olive oil and, occasionally, sAlt. A few drops of oil
are dropped into the water (sometimes salted). The oil may scatter, form blobs or sink to the bottom. These for- mations are interpreted to determine the source of the attack. The initiate drops more oil into the water while reciting incantations and making the sign of the cross on the forehead of the victim. If that fails, the victim is sent to a sorceress for further treatment.
FurtherreAdIng:
Di Stasti, Lawrence. Mal Occhio/The Underside of Vision. San
Francisco: North Point Press, 1981.
Elworthy, Frederick Thomas. 1895. reprint. The Evil Eye.
Secaucus, N.J.: University Books/Citadel Press.
exorcism The expulsion of evil spirits by commanding
them to depart. The expulsion is often done in the name of a deity, saints, angels or other intercessory figures.
Exorcism comes from the Greek horkos, meaning
“oath,” and translates as adjuro, or adjure, in Latin and
English. To “exorcize,” then, does not really mean to cast out so much as it means “putting the Devil on oath,” or invoking a higher authority to compel the Devil to act in a way contrary to its wishes. Such compulsion also im- plies binding. The Anglican pamphlet Exorcism (1972)
states, “Christian exorcism is the binding of evil pow- ers by the triumph of Christ Jesus, through the applica- tion of the power demonstrated by that triumph, in and by his Church.” Exorcism rituals often begin with the Latin words, “Adjure te, spiritus nequissime, per Deum omnipotentem,” which translates as “I adjure thee, most evil spirit, by almighty God.” Jesus, who cast out devils, did not exorcise, because he did not need to call on any higher authority than Himself.
Violence both physical and spiritual often dominates an exorcism. Furniture bangs and breaks, waves of heat
Priest exorcising demon from possessed woman (PIErrE BOAISTUAU, HISTOIRES PRODIGIEUSES, 1597)
and cold pour over the room, horrible cries emanate from the victim and often the victim suffers real physical pain and distress. The Devil seems to revel in spitting, vom- iting (see AllotrIophAgy) and other, more disgusting bodily functions as well. Spiritually, the Devil and the ex- orcist battle for the soul of the victim, and while the Devil hurls invectives, the exorcist counters with the strongest demands for the demon’s departure, vowing pain and penalty if it does not comply.
Exorcisms may also include the physical beating of a sufferer to force the demon to depart, or throwing stones at the possessed person. In extreme cases, such as that of Urbain Grandier in Loudun, the possessed person is killed and burned, or even burned alive, to remove all traces of the Devil’s evil. Such punishments imply that the exorcist does not believe the victim suffered inno- cently at the hands of the Devil, but rather that in some say he or she invited trouble. As late as 1966, members of a fanatic cult in Zurich, Switzerland, ritually beat a young girl to death for being “the Devil’s bride.”
Priests and ministers perform most exorcisms, but clairvoyants and spiritualists also expel evil spirits. The ritual is not nearly as important as the exorcist himself (or herself); such talent is a gift that should be developed. The exorcist must be convinced of the victim’s possession and have faith in the power of the Lord to work through the exorcist.
In his book Hostage to the Devil (1976), former Jesuit
professor malachi martin describes the typical exorcist: Usually he is engaged in the active ministry of parishes. rarely is he a scholarly type engaged in teaching or research. rarely is he a recently ordained priest. If there is any median age for exorcists, it is probably between the ages of fifty and sixty-five. Sound and robust physi- cal health is not a characteristic of exorcists, nor is proven intellectual brilliance, postgraduate degrees, even in psychology or philosophy, or a very sophisti- cated personal culture. . . . Though, of course, there are many exceptions, the usual reasons for a priest’s being chosen are his qualities of moral judgment, personal behavior, and religious beliefs—qualities that are not sophisticated or laboriously acquired, but that somehow seem always to have been an easy and natural part of such a man.
The exorcist as victim. Although most accounts of exorcism
concentrate on the sufferings of the victim and the machi- nations of the Devil, little has been said about the effect on the exorcist. Yet an exorcist assumes a heavy risk when fighting evil. Not only can the ordeal go on for weeks, may- be months, but the exorcist must be prepared to have his entire life bared by the paranormal knowledge of the Devil. Secret sins are blurted out and ridiculed, and the demons may even mimic the voices of long-lost loved ones.
Becoming possessed himself ranks as the greatest danger to the exorcist, especially if he suffers from guilt and secretly feels the need to be punished.
Father Jean-Joseph Surin, Jesuit exorcist to the nuns at Loudun, became possessed while ministering to Jeanne des Anges after the death of Grandier. reared in a clois- ter, Surin practiced self-denial during his early years as a priest, denying himself food, sleep and social contact. By the time he went to Loudun, Surin suffered from poor health, severe headaches, muscle pain, melancholy and