ESTADO GENERAL DE LOS PUENTES EN NICARAGUA

7. Strong disparities following a centre-periphery pattern at European level as

regards demography and economic activity, tourism destinations ... 177

7.1. Demography ... 177 7.1.1. Population of working age ... 177 7.1.2. Residents having another nationality (EU or non-EU) ... 178 7.2. Economic activity ... 179 7.2.1. Gross domestic product per inhabitant ... 179 7.2.2. Employment according to economic activities ... 180 7.2.3. Unemployment ... 182 7.2.4. Location of headquarters ... 182 7.2.5. Location of international meetings... 183 7.3. Attractiveness of certain destinations for tourism ... 185 7.3.1. Beds available ... 185 7.3.2. Beds available per 1000 residents ... 186 Distinction between low season and high season ... 186 Conclusion: Strong disparities in the economic, political and touristic interest leading

to more or less favourable positions for airports ... 187 Very large cities: large or small/medium economic importance and very large or large (medium) touristic importance... 189 Medium and large cities: from very small/small to large touristic

importance and even very large economic importance ... 189 Small and very small cities: from only very small to medium economic importance but from very small to large touristic importance ... 190 8. Airports and their positioning within the European airport panorama: diverging

territorial circumstances, the airport’s relative position important which includes the proximity to other airports and the market segments served by them... 192

8.1. Paris CDG, Frankfurt, Amsterdam and London Heathrow airports: four generalist hub airports located in dense and economically but also

politically important zones ... 192 8.1.1. Traffic patterns ... 192

8.1.1.1. London Heathrow airport ... 194 8.1.1.2. Frankfurt/Main airport ... 196 8.1.1.3. Paris Charles de Gaulle airport... 199 8.1.1.4. Amsterdam Schiphol airport ... 202 8.1.2. Accessibility by public transport of Frankfurt, Paris CDG and Amsterdam

airport ... 205 8.1.2.1. The case of Frankfurt airport... 206 8.1.2.2. The case of Paris CDG airport ... 208

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8.1.2.3. The case of Amsterdam Schiphol airport ... 210 8.1.3. Implications for the airports’ territorial embeddedness ... 211 8.1.4. The implementation of intermodal transport concept ... 216 8.2. Airports specialised in freight traffic located next to large metropolitan areas

but sufficiently distant in order to operate 24/7

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8.2.1.1. Cologne/Bonn, Leipzig/Halle, Brussels and Liege acting as hubs of express freight companies ... 219 Paris CDG airport ... 219 Cologne/Bonn airport ... 219 Leipzig/Halle airport ... 221 Brussels airport... 222 Liege airport ... 223 8.2.1.2. Luxembourg, East Midlands, Oostende, Bergamo,

Frankfurt-Hahn, Maastricht and Brescia airports more

concentrated on general cargo but also handling express freight . 224 Luxembourg airport ... 225 East Midlands airport ... 225 Bergamo Orio al serio airport ... 225 Oostende airport ... 226 Frankfurt-Hahn airport ... 226 Maastricht airport ... 226 Brescia/Montichiari airport ... 227 Vatry airport ... 227 8.2.2. The territorial context into which cargo airports are embedded ... 227

8.2.2.1. Proximity to densely populated and economically important zones important to airports having established themselves as hubs of express freight companies ... 227 8.2.2.2. Next to large metropolitan areas but located rather outside of

dense urban areas important to cargo airports handling general cargo but also express freight ... 229 8.3. Emergence of airports with a strong low-cost traffic ... 232 8.3.1. Traffic patterns ... 233

8.3.1.1. Medium-sized and larger “traditional” airports with a rather medium proportion of low-cost traffic, served by traditional full service carriers and some charter airlines ... 234 Dublin airport ... 235 Geneva airport ... 235 Stuttgart airport ... 236 Nice airport ... 237

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8.3.1.2. Airports with a very high proportion of low-cost traffic located in zones that are already served by larger airports but not

necessarily within this market segment ... 238 Charleroi ... 238 Bergamo Orio al Serio airport ... 239 Rome Ciampino airport ... 239 Treviso airport ... 240 London Stansted airport ... 240 London Luton airport ... 240 Frankfurt-Hahn airport ... 241 Cologne/Bonn airport ... 241 Niederrhein/Weeze airport ... 242 Berlin Schonefeld airport ... 243 Lubeck airport ... 244 Beauvais airport ... 244 Girona airport ... 244 8.3.1.3. Airports with a medium or relatively high proportion of low-cost

traffic located in zones that are less dense and less economically important but destinations of touristic interest ... 245 Venice airport ... 246 Naples airport ... 247 Pisa airport ... 247 Alicante airport... 247 Malaga airport ... 248 Valencia airport ... 249 Palma de Mallorca ... 249 Faro airport... 250 8.3.1.4. Regional airports which increase their attractiveness by offering

low-cost traffic, some of them focus on intra- and extra-European traffic while others concentrate on national traffic ... 250 Dortmund airport: focus on intra-European flights ... 251 Shannon airport: focus on flights within the EU and to destinations outside the EU ... 252 Catania and Palermo airports: focus on national traffic ... 252 8.3.1.5. Very small airports depending entirely on low-cost carriers

located mainly in remote areas ... 253 8.3.1.6. Very small airports with a medium or relatively high proportion

of low-cost traffic ... 253 8.3.2. The territorial context into which airports with a strong low-cost traffic

are embedded ... 253 8.3.2.1. Proximity to medium-sized, large or even very large cities of a

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for medium-sized and larger “traditional” airports with more than 20 % of low-cost traffic ... 254 8.3.2.2. Located outside of large urban areas, airports with a very large

proportion of low-cost traffic provide an additional flight offer allowing them to outweigh remoteness despite the presence of larger airports serving already these metropolitan zones ... 257 8.3.2.3. Airports with a medium or relatively high proportion of low-cost

traffic located in zones which are less densely populated and less important from an economic point of view but characterised by a large attractiveness for tourism ... 260 8.3.2.4. Regional airports: relatively large distance from a country’s

economic and political centres or next to small and medium-sized cites of some economic importance but also within reach of larger airports with an alternative flight offer ... 262 8.3.2.5. Located in remote areas, some very small airports handle only

low-cost traffic whereas others are characterised by a rather limited proportion of low-cost traffic ... 263 8.4. Charter traffic driven by touristic attractiveness of certain regions, frontier

between charter and low-cost traffic becoming blurred... 265 8.4.1.1. Traffic patterns ... 266 8.4.1.2. The territorial context into charter airports are embedded... 267 8.5. Regional specialisation of airports located at Europe’s periphery but in zones

that are relatively dense and of relative economic power ... 268 8.5.1. Traffic patterns ... 268

8.5.1.1. Madrid as “the Atlantic door of Europe” ... 268 8.5.1.2. Athens seeking for the role as hub towards the Near and Middle

East and Western Asia in general ... 269 ... and competing against Milan Malpensa airport ... 270 8.5.1.3. Vienna as hub towards Eastern Europe ... 270

For which Budapest airport... ... 271 ...and Warsaw airport are also seeking ... 271 8.5.1.4. Stockholm, the regional hub in Northern Europe ... 271

In competition with Copenhagen airport... ... 272 …as well as Helsinki airport ... 272 8.5.2. The territorial context ... 273

8.5.2.1. Located in the geographic periphery of Europe but in zones that are relatively dense and economically important ... 275 8.5.2.2. Located in the periphery of Europe with respect to former

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Conclusion: Emerging specialisations may allow certain airports to take advantage of a favourable situation or to outweigh the disadvantages arising from an

unfavourable position but other factors have also an influence ... 277 Emergence of airport specialisations ... 277 Subject to the territorial context but also to the dynamics arising from the interaction between different actors ... 279 9. Airports between the necessity to meet airline requirements and the consideration

of a growing public interest ... 282

9.1. Consideration of the airlines’ requirements for the choice of an airport ... 282 9.1.1. As hub airports ... 282 9.1.1.1. Requirement of a high level of airport services ... 283 9.1.1.2. The influence of historical choices on current airport strategies . 283 9.1.2. As low-cost airport ... 284

9.1.2.1. The emergence of low-cost carriers ... 284 9.1.2.1. Factors of airport choice ... 286 9.1.2.2. Necessity to know and understand the customer becomes even

more important for the airport ... 288 9.1.1. As charter airport ... 289

9.1.1.1. A very competitive market for charter flights already before the liberalisation ... 289 9.1.1.2. New opportunities but also competition from low-cost airlines .. 290 9.1.1.3. Requirement of low-cost airport services ... 291 9.1.2. As freight airport ... 291 9.2. Restrictions to airport activity due to a growing public interest in airports

being source of economic growth at regional and national level but also of conflicts at local level ... 292 9.2.1. Economic growth at regional and national level... 293

9.2.1.1. Direct, indirect and induced effects on employment and income 293 Airports concentrate employment ... 293 Some figures as to the employment resulting from the airport’s traffic volume and nature ... 294 Airports as economic motor at regional, national and local level ... 295 Airport as motor for tourism development ... 296 9.2.1.2. Catalytic effects due to an increase in the region’s accessibility . 297

A better accessibility may improve business efficiency and

productivity ... 297 The extension of Frankfurt airport: catalytic effects called into

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9.2.2. Airports as source of conflicts at local level ... 300 9.2.2.1. The economic concept of environmental effects... 301 9.2.2.2. Noise pollution: a nuisance at local level ... 303

Direct effects of noise pollution using the example of Paris CDG and Orly airports ... 304 Indirect effects of noise pollution using the example of Paris CDG and Orly airports ... 305 Induced effects of noise pollution using the example of Paris CDG and Orly airports ... 306 9.2.2.3. Noise-abatement strategies ... 306 Operating restrictions for noisy aircraft... 308 Noise budgets ... 308 Restrictions to night flights ... 309 Noise charges ... 310 Strategic noise maps ... 313 Growing local protest ... 313 9.2.2.4. The difficult integration of airports into the local territory:

acceptability of airports ... 317 Increasing the airports’ social acceptability as an issue to airports... 318 Lack of empirical evaluation hindering the estimation of social costs319 Integrating local stakeholders in the decision-making process – the construction of a joint territory together with the airport ... 321 9.2.3. Nuisances of air transport at global level ... 322

9.2.3.1. The air transport’s contribution to CO2 emissions ... 324 9.2.3.2. Integration of air transport in emissions trading on a worldwide

scale ... 326 9.2.3.3. The European emissions trading scheme (ETS) ... 327 9.2.3.4. Consequences of the inclusion of aviation into the ETS on airline

competition, prices and profitability ... 328 Purchased permits ... 329 Permits free of charge ... 331 Some estimation of the cost of emission allowances ... 333 9.2.3.5. Consequences of emission trading for airports ... 334 9.3. Management of scarce capacity ... 338

9.3.1. Capacity constraints and congestion at EU airports ... 338 9.3.1.1. Excess demand for slots at a number of airports ... 338 9.3.1.2. Delays ... 339 9.3.2. Slot allocation mechanisms ... 340 9.3.2.1. Current slot allocation in the EU ... 340 9.3.2.2. Inefficiencies of the current slot allocation scheme ... 341

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9.3.2.3. Alternative slot allocation mechanism... 343 9.3.2.4. The potential impact of market mechanisms for slot allocation .. 344

Potential impact on airports with severe excess demand for slots

throughout the day ... 345 Potential impact on airports with excess demand during peak hours . 347 Conclusion: The airport’s capacity to meet airlines’ requirements and to deal with

public policies allows him to pursue current and to safeguard future

development ... 349

Conclusion of part 3: The airport’s room for manoeuvre depending on constraints and opportunities from its location and on its capacity to deal with other parties involved in air transport – emergence of a new strategic actor within a complex set of relations ... 351 GENERAL CONCLUSION ... 353 APPENDICES... 359 REFERENCES ... 451

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