EVALUACIÓN DE LA EFECTIVIDAD DE MANEJO EN ÁREAS

Campylobacteris the most common food-borne zoonotic pathogen in the developed world (Ober- helman and Taylor,2000). The most common clinical symptoms of campylobacteriosis include diarrhoea, fever and abdominal cramps (Blaser, 1997). Generally the incubation period is from 1-3 days but it can be as long as seven days (Skirrow,1994). Although death due to campylobac- teriosis is rare it can lead to various complications including Guillain-Barre syndrome (Mishu and Blaser, 1993). Seasonal peaks of campylobacteriosis have been observed in summer in various countries including the UK, Nordic countries, New Zealand and Australia (Hudson et al.,1999; Meldrum et al.,2005;Nylen et al.,2002).

Campylobacteriosis is the most frequently notifiable infectious disease in New Zealand. In 2011 the rate of infection in New Zealand was 151.9 cases per 100,000 population (6692 cases). The highest rates of campylobacteriosis in New Zealand were recorded in South Canterbury (223.5 cases per 100,000 population; 126 cases) and Wairarapa (219.3 cases per 100,000 population; 89 cases). The highest rate of infection was observed in children 1-4 years of age (289.4 cases per 100,000 population; 729 cases). The highest rate of infection has been observed in European or Other ethnic group (175.5 cases per 100,000 population; 5350 cases) (Environmental Science and Research,2011).

Campylobacterhas been isolated from various hosts including cattle, sheep (Stanley et al.,1998a,b), pigs (Weijtens et al.,1999), poultry (Wallace et al.,1997) and wild birds including ducks, gulls, starlings, pukeko (French et al., 2011b), sparrow (Chuma et al., 2000) and wildfowl (Fallacara et al.,2001). The most common sources of transmission ofCampylobacterto humans are chicken, red meat, milk, water and contact with farm animals (Friedman et al.,2000;Kapperud et al.,2003).

1.10.1 Cattle as a reservoir ofCampylobacter

In New Zealand cattle is considered the second most common source of transmission ofCampy- lobacterto humans after poultry. A source attribution study in New Zealand indicated that cattle

contributed 18% (95% CI=10-26%) of human cases of campylobacteriosis (Mullner et al.,2009b). Several studies have reported the prevalence ofC. jejuniin cattle ranging from 0.8% to 97% (Gi- acoboni et al.,1993;Rosef et al.,1983). A study conducted in feedlot cattle in Alberta, Canada reported high faecal prevalence ofCampylobacter(87%; 2420/2776) in freshly voided faecal sam- ples. In this study sampling was not random as only those farmers who were willing to participate were selected for the study. This study could not find a significant difference between the preva- lence ofC. jejuniin summer (70%, 1210/1376; 95% CI=67-72%) and winter (64%, 1210/1400; 95% CI=58-70%) (Hannon et al.,2009). A study of 15 dairy and beef farms in Washington State found 43.2% (297/686) overall prevalence ofCampylobacter. Samples were collected directly from the rectum and from faecal pats on the ground. The prevalence of C. jejuni was 34.1% (234/686) (Bae et al.,2005). A Norwegian study reported low prevalence ofC. jejuniandC. coli

in cattle. Of 254 rectal swabs collected from cows two (0.8%) were positive forCampylobacter

spp. However, the samples were stored at4◦Cfor 2-3 days before analysis (Rosef et al.,1983) and this could have contributed to the low prevalence ofCampylobacterspp. in this study (Deguevara et al.,1989).

Kwan et al.(2008) conducted a longitudinal study to estimate the prevalence ofC. jejuni. Faecal samples (1208) were collected from Cheshire, UK from five farms over an 11 month period. The overall prevalence ofCampylobacter was 50.8% (434/1208). The prevalence was high in summer and spring (62.2%) as compared to autumn and winter (37.7%).Ellis-Iversen et al.(2009) conducted cross-sectional study to estimate the prevalence ofC. jejuniandC. coliin cattle from England and Wales. Faecal samples were collected from dairy and beef cattle (n=235). The prevalence ofC. jejuni(60/235; 25.5%) was higher thanC. coli(5/235; 2.12%). The sampling was not random as the samples were collected from farms previously classified as STEC O157 positive farms. A Danish study found a 22.6% (77/332) prevalence ofCampylobacterin dairy cows. The prevalence ofCampylobacterwas higher in calves<4 months (45/107; 42.1%) of age than adult cows (11/120; 9.2%) The sampling was carried out from August to October 1999 and faecal samples were collected per rectum from 332 cattle. Samples were enriched in Preston broth for 18-24 hours at41.5◦Cbefore inoculating onto mCCDA agar (Modified Charcoal Cefoperazone Deoxycholate agar) (Nielsen,2002). A Japanese study also reported the difference in prevalence ofCampylobacter in different age groups. Faecal samples were collected from calves less than one year of age (n=34) and also older than one year (n=60). The prevalence ofCampylobacterwas higher in calves less than one year of age (97%; 33/34) compared to calves more than one year of age (46.7%; 28/60) (Giacoboni et al.,1993).Meanger and Marshall(1989) collected 273 RAMS from dairy cows in summer, autumn and winter seasons from dairy farms at Massey University, New Zealand. The overall prevalence of Campylobacter was 22.3% (61/273). The prevalence ofCampylobacterwas higher in summer (24%; 17/72) and autumn (31%; 33/106) as compared to winter (12%; 11/95). RAMS were collected from 52 milking cows at the number 4 dairy unit, Massey University Palmerston North between 5th April and 25th May 2002. Samples were enriched in Bolton broth for 48 hours at42◦Cand inoculated onto mCCDA plates for isolation of

C. jejuni. The prevalence ofC. jejuniwas 54% (28/52) (Adhikari et al.,2004). Use of enrichment of faecal samples before culturing may be the reason for the higher prevalence ofCampylobacter

in cattle in this study compared to study ofMeanger and Marshall(1989).

1.10.2 Role of water inCampylobactertransmission

Water is considered an important source of transmission ofCampylobacterand many water-borne

Campylobacteroutbreaks have been reported (Clark et al.,2003;Kuusi et al.,2005;Richardson et al.,2007). Campylobacterhave been isolated from rivers and water-ways (Bolton et al.,1987; Carter et al.,2009;Jones,2001) and transmission ofCampylobacterfrom water to livestock and vice versa have been suggested due to isolation of identical biotypes ofCampylobacterfrom water and cattle (Stanley et al.,1998a). Main sources of contamination of rivers withCampylobacterare effluent from treatment plants and surface run-off water. Different studies have reported rates of isolation ofCampylobacterfrom different rivers ranging from 37% in central Washington to 82% in Germany (Carter et al.,1987;Stelzer and Jacob,1991). These variations may be due to differ- ences in catchment-specific factors (topography, soil type and land use) and culture methods for

Campylobacter. Differences in population ofCampylobacterin streams have also been reported e.g. mainlyC. jejuniandC. coliwere present in a stream passing through pasture grazed by cattle (Stanley et al.,1998a) and sheep (Stanley et al.,1998b) whereas the population ofCampylobacter

in streams draining duck ponds mainly includedC. jejuni,C. lariand urease-positive thermophilic campylobacters (Jones, 2001). Seasonal variation has also been reported in rate of isolation of

Campylobacterfrom river water (Obiri-Danso and Jones,1999). Obiri-Danso and Jones(1999) collected 288 water samples (144 each site) from two different sites on the River Lune in England. The total rate of isolation ofCampylobacterwas 82.9% (239/288). The rate and number of isola- tion ofCampylobacterwas higher in winter, autumn and spring as compared to summer on both the sites of the River Lune.

Campylobacter has been isolated from rivers and streams in New Zealand (Carter et al., 2009; Devane et al.,2005). The prevalence ofCampylobacterfrom Ashburton River water samples was 55.2% (162/293) (Devane et al.,2005). A similar finding was reported bySavill et al.(2001). Var- ious sequence types have been reported from New Zealand rivers for example,Carter et al.(2009) characterised 244C. jejuni isolates from three rivers in New Zealand (Taieri River, Ashburton River and Manawatu River) using MLST and identified 88 sequence types (STs). Most of the STs identified have also been reported from wild birds (French et al.,2009) and seven STs were unique to New Zealand (Carter et al.,2009).