Bar-On (1988), in all probability, formulated the first attempt to measure EI in terms of wellbeing. In the research, the term emotional quotient (EQ) was utilised before scholars such as Salovey and Mayer (1990) published the first version of their EI model. Bar-On initially characterised EI as “an array of non-cognitive capabilities, competencies and skills that influence one‟s ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures” (Bar-On, 1997a:16).
In 2006 Bar-On argued that from Darwin to the present, most definitions of emotional intelligence have included one or more of the following components: (a) the ability to recognise, understand and express emotions and feelings; (b) the ability to understand how others feel and being able to relate to them; (c) the ability to manage and control emotions; (d) the ability to manage change, adapt and solve problems of a personal and interpersonal nature; and (e) the ability to generate positive affect and be self-motivated (Bar-On et al., 2006:4).
Revising the 1997 definition, Bar-On builds on the non-cognitive (mixed) perspective on emotional intelligence by defining it as a cross-section of interrelated emotional and social
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competencies, skills and facilitators that determine how effectively we understand and express ourselves, understand others and relate to them, and cope with daily demands (Bar-On, 2005; Bar-On et al., 2006).
Bar-On (2005) asserts that the above is based, first and foremost, on one‟s intrapersonal ability to be aware of oneself, to understand one‟s strengths and weaknesses, and to express one‟s feelings and thoughts non-destructively. On an interpersonal level, emotional intelligence includes the ability to be aware of the emotions of others, to be aware of our own feelings and needs, and to establish and maintain cooperative, constructive and mutually satisfying relationships. Bar-On (2005) further argues that being emotionally intelligent means to effectively manage personal, social and environmental change by realistically and flexibly coping with the immediate situation, solving problems and making decisions. In order to master this, individuals need to manage their emotions so that emotions work for them and not against them. Also, individuals need to be sufficiently optimistic, positive and self-motivated (Bar-On, 2005).
The five main broad areas of skills in the Bar-On model of emotional intelligence, as described above, are intrapersonal, interpersonal, stress management, adaptability and general mood. Each of these competencies includes several closely related skills, competencies and facilitators as illustrated in Table 2.11.
Table 2.11: The Bar-On model of EI (Bar-On, 2003:15)
Major areas of skills Skills, competencies and facilitators Intrapersonal Self-awareness and self-expression
Self-regard To accurately perceive, understand and accept oneself Emotional self-awareness To be aware of and understand one‟s emotions
Assertiveness To effectively and constructively express one‟s emotions and oneself Independence To be self-reliant and free of emotional dependency on others Self-actualisation To strive to achieve personal goals and actualise one‟s potential Interpersonal Social awareness and interpersonal relationships
Empathy To be aware of and understand how others feel
Social responsibility To identify with one‟s social group and cooperate with others
Interpersonal relationships To establish mutually satisfying relationships and relate well to others Stress management Emotional management and regulation
Stress tolerance To effectively and constructively manage emotions Impulse control To effectively and constructively control emotions
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Reality-testing To objectively validate one‟s feelings and thinking with external reality Flexibility To adapt and adjust one‟s feelings and thinking to new situations Problem-solving To effectively solve problems of a personal and interpersonal nature General mood Self-motivation
Optimism To be positive and look at the brighter side of life Happiness To feel content with oneself, others and life in general
The Bar-On emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) is a self-report measure of emotionally intelligent behaviour and operationalises the Bar-On model. The EQ-i provides an estimate of one‟s underlying emotional and social intelligence and was the first measure of emotional intelligence to be published by a psychological test publisher (Bar-On et al., 2006:5). It was also the first measure of emotional intelligence to be reviewed in the Buros Mental Measurement
Yearbook (Plake & Impara, 1999; Bar-On, 2000). Since the publication of the EQ-I in 1997, more
than one million assessments have been administered worldwide up to 2002. This makes the EQ-i the most widely used measure of EI at that stage. Additionally, the EQ-i has been translated into 22 languages and normative data has been collected in more than 15 countries. It was designed to measure the EI construct only. It is not designed to measure personality traits or cognitive capacity (Dawda & Hart, 2000).
The EQ-i consists of 133 questions using a five-point Likert scale. The scale ranges from “very seldom or not true of me” to “very often true of me or true of me”. Based on the age breakdown of the normative sample, the instrument is suitable for the age group 17 years and older. Completion time of the EQ-i is approximately 40 minutes (Bar-On, 2000). The EQ-i produces a total emotional intelligence score as well as a score for each of the fifteen subscales. The score is based on a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15. Average to above average EQ-i scores suggest that the respondent is effective in emotional and social functioning. The higher the EQ-i scores, the prediction for successfully coping with daily demands and challenges increases. Low EQ-i scores suggest an inability of the individual to be effective and the possible presence of emotional, social and/or behavioural problems (Bar-On, 2005). The EQ-i scores are generated electronically. The results are presented in numeric, graphical and narrative format.
Borg and Gall (1979:157) recommend reliability, validity and norms to be considered when evaluating a quantitative measurement for use in research. In terms of reliability, research
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results over the past 20 years have shown good consistency within the factorial components of the Bar-On model of emotional and social intelligence as well as stability over time (Bar-On, 2005). Based on a North American normative sample, the overall internal consistency coefficient of the instrument is 0.97. Re-examination revealed nearly identical results, showing a slight mean increase of 0.025. Retests to examine the reliability over a six-month period produced a coefficient of 0.72 for males (n=73) and 0.80 for females (n=279) (Bar-On, 2004).
In terms of validity, research findings illustrate that the EQ-i has the least amount of overlap with cognitive tests, shows greater degree of overlap with personality tests and greatest degree of overlap with other measures of emotional and social intelligence (Bar-On, 2005). The research results suggest that the EQ-i demonstrates good construct validity, that is, the instrument measures what it is designed to measure. In terms of validity, the EQ-i includes an omission rate, inconsistency index, positive impression and negative impression. A built-in correlation factor automatically adjusts the scores based on the positive and negative impression, reducing the bias with resulting increase in accuracy.
In terms of norms, the EQ-i was developed over a period of 17 years and normed on 3831 adults in North America in 1996, including individuals from nearly all the states in the United States of America and every province in Canada (Bar-On, 2005). It has been translated into more than 30 languages. More than one million assessments have been completed since publication of the EQ-i in 1997, proving it to be the most widely used measure of emotional and social intelligence (Bar-On, 2003).
The EQ-i 2.0 was published in 2012 and is a revision of the Bar-On EQ-I 1.0. The original instrument was named “The Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i)”; the revised instrument is now known as “EQ-I 2.0”. The measurement consists of 133 items and includes five validity indices rendering a total EI score, five composite scale scores and fifteen subscale scores.
Table 2.12: The revised EQ-i 2.0 model of EI
Major areas of skill Skills, competencies and facilitators
Self-perception Self-regard
Self-actualisation
Emotional self-awareness
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Assertiveness Independence
Interpersonal Interpersonal relationships
Empathy
Social responsibility
Decision-making Problem-solving
Reality testing Impulse control
Stress management Flexibility
Stress tolerance Optimism
Well-being indicator Happiness