Factores críticos para interoperabilidad técnica

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M. van HOEK: 163 GEOGRAPHY FIG. 131: ANTAS DE ULLA.

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2.1.3 GALICIA

Unfortunately, the exact number of cup-and-rings is unknown for Galicia, but the total can be estimated to be around 1500. Each year however, new finds add to the grand total of known Galician cup-and-

rings. One of the important recent discoveries is the group at

Sabaxáns, just east of Gargamala. On an enormous outcrop of granite, a large number of multiple cup-and-rings have been uncovered; among them also an (unknown) number of cupules with five or more rings. One fine cupule with seven concentric rings (included in this survey) shows a central cupule with one ring surrounded by an area with extremely faint rings and an outer area of deeply carved rings (Fig. 185). This may point to a temporary stop in the cup-and-ring tradition and a renewed practice of adding ringmarks in order to create impressive multiple ring systems. We will discuss this possible practice at other sites in Galicia; instances occur at Lombo da Costa (Fig. 134) and perhaps Gargamala (Fig. 56).

As at least 109 examples (roughly 7.5 %) have five or more rings (Fig. 123), it proves that in Galicia multiple ring systems are relatively more frequent. Whereas the distribution of cups with five or more rings in the British Isles and Scandinavia is mainly a coastal matter, in Galicia the location of such motifs proves to be more a feature of the interior, as only one third of these motifs (38 examples) is found within ten kilometres of the coast (Fig. 130). The recent discovery of a major inland cup-and-ring site at O Gorguillon (Fig. 185) just east of Gargamala confirms this pattern as well.

Also in Galicia there are two main axes of rock art distribution concerning the spread of multiple rings. The northern group, featuring the greatest numbers, starts around the estuary of Pontevedra, where we find examples at Poio, Marin (Mogor)

and Pontevedra (Fig.

130), and following the

Rio Lerez further east, an major concentration

around Campo Lameiro is

reached. Possibly this axis continued towards Valga and ultimately to the recently discovered concentration near Antas de Ulla (Fig. 131). The maximum number of concentric rings on this axis is ten (Fig. 130; graph of the northern group), but it proves that (apart from cupules with one to four rings) cupules with five or six rings predominate. Just possibly, this group is older.

M. van HOEK: 164 GEOGRAPHY FIGURE 132: GARGAMALA 6.

The second axis includes a more scattered group around the Rio Miño and its tributaries. Here we find important sites at Monte Faro and Podame in Portugal and Monte Teton (Fig. 44), O Gorguillon (Fig. 185) and

Gargamala (Figs 120 and

132) in Galicia (Fig. 130). This area also features examples with more than ten rings, reaching the maximum number for Europe of 18 rings at Monte Teton (Fig. 45). Monte Teton IV is located at a spot offering extensive views across an important pass from the wide valley of the river Miño to the valley of the Rio Miñor further north. Because of its complex art, this scattered southern group may be younger than the northern group.

Contrary to the British Isles, the distribution of cupules with five or more rings in Galicia does not seem to be based on the search for through routes, but rather indicates the major direction of the exploration of the interior, following the river valleys of the Lerez and the Miño. Still it is remarkable that also in Galicia complex art seems to have been concentrated in the valleys of the major river systems and their estuaries.

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2.1.4 SCANDINAVIA

Although Scandinavia only has eight cupules with five or more rings (Fig. 123), it is remarkable to see how concentrated they are. Apart from one example at Bjuggsta north of Lake Mälar (Fig. 91), all other examples are found in the Hordaland Region on the west coast of Norway (Fig. 101). Only one example occurs at Bakke (Fig. 102), and all others are found in the Etne District, where only three sites, Fitja, Flote and Vinje comprise cupules with up to eight rings.

The number of Norwegian cupules with five or more rings is too low to base any firm conclusions upon, but their concentration at a point on the west coast of Norway and opposite Scotland may be significant. This clustering near Etne possibly indicates a relation between these two areas at some time. The distribution pattern on the west coast of Norway resembles the situation in Galicia, but also that of Kerry in Ireland. These rock art groups indicate the major axis of movement, whereas the siting on micro level points more to the creation of ceremonial centres, like Flote.

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M. van HOEK: 165 GEOGRAPHY The distribution in south Sweden is more or less similar to situations in Scotland, with also a major landing area on the west coast, Bohuslän, a belt of complex rock art sites through the interior using a chain of large lakes, and two heavy concentrations near the east coast, Norrköping and Lake Mälar. This latter area is known for its many cupuled rocks, some of which have been ringed.

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2.1.5 CONCLUSIONS

Having discussed the major cup-and-ring regions of Europe, there proves to exist a striking concentration of complex cup-and-rings in special key areas within the rock art regions of Europe. Especially cupules with five or more rings are found on or at either end of major

prehistoric routes across landscapes and seascapes. On land this is

most evident in the Alps and in the British Isles. Both these areas may be regarded as barriers and the search for routes through the interior will have had a funnelling effect. Fine examples are: the Kilmartin group and the Loch Tay group; the Greenland concentration west of Glasgow and the Castleton group at either end of the central Scottish lowlands; the Carschenna group in the north of the Alps and the Valcamonica group in the south.

To a lesser extent concentrations occur in Galicia and Scandinavia. These two latter areas may be regarded as the end-concentrations of sea-routes and this just possibly may imply that the cup-and-ring tradition started somewhere in the British Isles and diffused in several directions using the routes entrenched previously by the peoples who initially introduced the cupule tradition.

Indeed, the overall distribution patterns of cupules point to a movement towards northern areas, but this does imply not at all that also cup-and-ring art originated for instance in Galicia. The importance of the key-area around the Irish Sea as the cradle for the cup tradition cannot be ruled out.

Although a south-north decline of cupules with multiple rings along the

Atlantic seaboard may be noted (Fig. 183), the main concentration of

cupules with five or more concentric rings is found around the Irish Sea, whereas the great concentric rings are found in Galicia. This distribution is contrary to the distribution of cupules. Cupules are common in southern Europe and the Alps, numerous in the British Isles, but are found in astonishing large numbers in Scandinavia. This may have a reason.

In my opinion settlement pressure or disasters may have forced people out of their homelands and flows of migration originated throughout prehistoric Europe. I would like to suggest that cupule carving originated during the initial south-north movement (or perhaps an eastbound migration from across the Atlantic Ocean ?). One produced larger numbers of cupules the colder and more hostile the land became.

M. van HOEK: 166 GEOGRAPHY Later, during more settled times, other Neolithic groups may have introduced the circle, not only as a rock art symbol but also as an overall expression of their perception of life and the world they lived in.

Later still, people lavished considerable time and energy on the execution of spectacular sites at specific places, due to a late but short-lived florescence which probably caused a strong centripetal pull. When this centripetal pull eventually declined, individuals were able to pilfer carved relics (with their magic) for their special benefit.

In conclusion, the widespread execution of large numbers of cupules most likely happened on a real and publicly level, expressing the need to transform new landscapes into cultural and spiritual places. Contrary, the sites at which complex cup-and-rings were depicted may have constituted specific focal points of the landscape that signified privileged access to real and supernatural territories. In this way complex cup-and-rings become more than religious and social metaphors; they become a manipulation of the landscape which, in turn, determines peoples relations with other people and the supernatural. It is surprising to see that cup-and-ring art flourished for almost 3000 years. Surely these symbols were very powerful, but, as usual, also their significance diminished and ultimately this specific rock art tradition went extinct. The images on the rocks remained however and became not only the subject of many studies, but were also noted by later prehistoric peoples who replaced the Neolithic cultures. In some cases the once so powerful cup-and-rings were assimilated into the new culture and occasionally transformed into other images. This assimilation is the subject of the next Chapter.

M. van HOEK: 167 GEOGRAPHY FIG. 133 A: WEETWOOD 9 AND B: CHATTON 1.



CHAPTER 2.2



INSTANCES OF “RE-SANCTIFICATION”

OF EUROPEAN CUP-AND-RINGS

~ INTRODUCTION ~

The first time I came across the term “re-sanctification” in relation with Neolithic cup-and-ring art, was in a book by Beckensall & Laurie (1998). In this comprehensive work on rock art in the north of England the authors stated that they discovered an instance of prehistoric quarrying of a cup-and-ring site, followed by renewed execution of cup- and-ring engraving. This practice was labelled “re-sanctification” by them. Instances of “re-sanctification” will be the subject of the following four chapters and Chapter 2.2.1 will especially deal with the concept of quarrying.

Their use of the term “re-sanctification” within the quarrying context was rather obscure, however. From their description it seemed as if “re-sanctification” was something special; an exception. But it must not be forgotten that it has been a

normal practice to add new cup-and-

rings to existing sites over very

long periods of time. It is even

possible that the cup-and-ring tradition of a certain area stopped for a while and that later the practice revived again; for instance when large sets of multiple ring systems were introduced (Chapter 2.1). This may have led to the replenishment of existing cup-and- rings. Although scientific proof is lacking, there are quite a few instances where it is feasible that new ringmarks were added to existing cup-and-rings. Further on I will discuss a fine example at Lombo da Costa, Galicia. But there are other indications of “re-sanctification”.

Occasionally instances of superimposition and incorporation also occur and it may be significant that mainly the group of simpler cup-and-rings became incorporated or superimposed. Notice for example that the third inner ring at Weetwood 9 is flattened to avoid the existing cup- and-two-rings nearby, while the outer ring is interrupted by the cup- and-two rings (Fig. 133.A); and at Chatton 1 a cup-and-one-ring is incorporated into a large multiple ring system (Fig. 133.B). Similar

M. van HOEK: 168 GEOGRAPHY FIGURE 134. LOMBO DA COSTA (MAP FIG. 49).

superimpositions and situations of avoiding occur in Galicia, for instance at Gargamala 2, where a cupule with six rings is superimposed upon a cupule with four rings (Fig. 55).

When concentric rings were increasingly added, it became inevitable that instances of disregard and respect concerning previously engraved petroglyphs emerged. It proves however, that respect for existing cup- and-rings prevailed. A most interesting example of respect occurs at Lombo da Costa, also in Galicia, on one of the smaller satellite-outcrops of the main site, rock XXVIII (Fig. 134).

Although it is uncertain which motifs appeared first, let us suppose that the sequence started with two cup-and-two-complete-rings, A and B in Fig. 134. One then added a ringmark at D but did not complete the ring. Instead, one focussed on the more centrally placed motif C and started adding ringmarks until D was reached. Notice that the sixth ring (E) is not complete and that the outer rings between E and F are more closely packed: this may point to a temporary stop in the adding of ringmarks. It is also clearly visible that the outer rings between E and F avoid motif D and that ringmark F and the incomplete outer ring

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M. van HOEK: 169 GEOGRAPHY G stops at motif D. This proves that the outer rings are later than motif D. At a later stage the radial grooves T1 and T2 were added, both protruding beyond the outer ring. Notice that radial groove T1

avoids the larger ring-system which proves that T1 is later than the

big ring F, which fits into my theory that radial grooves represent the last main feature in the Neolithic cup-and-ring tradition of Europe (Van Hoek 1999). Later still, two more radial grooves, T3 and T4, were added and it is striking that these are fainter and do not continue outside the outer ring.

Perhaps by the end of the Neolithic (or possibly in the early Bronze Age), three zoomorphic figures, H1, H2 and H3, and a half-circle, R,

were added, all touching the older motif. It is most remarkable that

the stag has its antler connected to the earlier cup-and-three-rings, using its radial groove. This may have been an expression of the belief that the branches of the antlers symbolised the rays of the sun and that the stag, or some other animal, carried the sun across the skies (Evers 1995: 58). This “liaison” may be regarded as a fine instance of “re-sanctification”.

To summarise, every addition of a cup-and-ring symbol onto existing cup-and-ring sites actually may represent an instance of “re- sanctification”, as every addition is an expression of the same cultural tradition. To distinguish between this “normal” practice within the cup- and-ring tradition and the suggested special meaning behind the term “re-sanctification”, I rather would like to define “re-sanctification” as

the premeditated petroglyphic alteration of an existing (cup-and- ring) motif by a completely different culture, so that it merges in the symbolism of that new culture. In this way the term “re- sanctification” creates a distinct chronological and cultural gap between the cup-and-ring tradition and subsequent rock art traditions that developed in the cup-and-ring regions of Europe.

A number of typical “liaisons” between cup-and-ring art and other art forms emerged, such as the “disc-men” of Bohuslän in Sweden and the combination of animals with cup-and-rings in Galicia. But first the possible relation between the quarrying of cup-and-ring art and the subsequent “re-sanctification” of that quarried site will be discussed in Chapter 2.2.1.

M. van HOEK: GEOGRAPHY170 FIGURE 135: CHANDEBRITO.



CHAPTER 2.2.1