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FIG. 153: HEDE.

shows a cup-and-ring motif and a human figure with a long stick or spear (although it has also been suggested (Milstreu 1997: 69) that the long groove may represent an unfinished boat engraving). But obviously, neither the human figure nor the possible spear has been combined with the nearby cup-and-ring.

The same happened at Aspeberget, where we find a cup-and-two-rings close to a later (?) “adoranten”. Possibly this figure (Fig. 152) has been engraved at that specific place in order to worship the (earlier) cup-and-ring motif as a solar symbol and this may be compared with a similar scene at Rock 1 at Foppe di Nadro, Valcamonica, Italy. In his right hand the Aspeberget figure carries an axe, possibly superimposed later, just like the scabbard. However, this “adoranten” also carries a spear that clearly has been superimposed upon the human figure (Wanke 1999:

64). All additions may again indicate a change in conceptions; a change from a more peaceful society worshipping the sun, to a more belligerent society perhaps ? Important is the fact that the spear is in a position that does

not resemble the position of the

horizontal grooves at the “disc-men”, but is conform the position of typical spear-carrying human figures, seen for instance at the main panel at Fossum.

These examples may point to the

possibility that, on these panels, the

two types of engravings remained spatially separated, because they are also chronologically distinct; the cup- and-ring motif being earlier. It then proves rather to be a matter of discretion whether a combination of the two types took place.

Another interesting example occurs at Hede (Fig. 153) where we find many cupules and circular motifs, mainly of the rosette-type. Human figures have clearly been superimposed upon

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M. van HOEK: GEOGRAPHY191 earlier rosette figures and the cup-and-two-rings is found in a distinctly random position, possibly indicating chronologically and stylistically separated phases of rock art engraving.

Having established that the resulting Bronze Age “disc-men” indeed may incorporate Neolithic cup-and-rings, then remains the question of

interpretation. Coles (1990: 18) wonders “Are these disc men supposed

to be sun gods,... or just men holding round shields in front of their bodies ?”. In the context of the Bronze Age dating of the Bohuslän engravings the “sun god” seems to be an appropriate explanation, as the disc and especially the cross-in-circle have firmly been established to represent a sun symbol in the art of the Nordic Bronze Age (Kaul 1998: 5). But why is it not possible that also some ancient cup-and- rings were interpreted as solar symbols and subsequently were incorporated into a ”disc-man” ?

The “shield” interpretation, however, is more doubtful, even though the circular trunks are indeed closely matched by bronze objects firmly dated to the later Bronze Age (Coles 1990: 38); such shields even may be found depicted on the rocks of Bohuslän, for instance at Svenneby (Coles 1990: 81). This similarity, however, only seemingly suggests a late Bronze dating for the “disc-men”, as this would imply that all these human figures represent warriors. In my opinion at least one category of “disc-men” does not represent warriors, despite the suggestion (Coles 1990: 58) that some of these “disc-men” in this category carry spears, like at Finntorp (Fig. 150.11). Are these long horizontal grooves indeed spears ? Again there is much reason for doubt.

When we compare these “disc-men” with numerous definite depictions of spear-carrying warriors, like the ones at Bro Utmark (Fig. 150.18), Aspeberget (Fig. 152) and Hede (Fig. 153), it proves that human figures usually have those spears raised above their heads, showing, moreover, distinctly engraved arms which hold those spears aloft. When sticks indeed represent spears and still are depicted in a similar position as with a “stick-carrying disc-men” (that is, between the head and the trunk), the arms holding the spear are almost always clearly defined, like at the human figures hunting animals on the main rock at Fossum. Also, the spear-heads at definite depictions of spear-carrying warriors are also more than often clearly indicated. These features, however, never show with the “stick-carrying disc-men”, except perhaps for the example with ill-defined arms (added ?) at the now

covered rock art panel at Aspeberget 18B (Fig. 150.9). This not-so-

long groove, however, lacks the typical spear head, as does another example at Aspeberget 12 (Fig. 150.10).

Another case also proves that one too easily tends to accept such a horizontal groove to be a spear. A frieze at Bottna Olskroken shows a

M. van HOEK: GEOGRAPHY192 FIGURE 154: BOTTNA OLSKROKEN, BOHUSLÄN.

hunting scene” and “a herd of animals, probably horses”, watched by a human “with a spear“ (Coles 1990: 56). A similar human at the Vitlycke main panel is said to have extremely long arms (Coles 1990: 87), whereas Wanke interprets these arms as a giant spear (1999: 27). Although both interpretations for the long groove at the Vitlycke human may be correct, it is doubtful whether the horizontal groove at the Bottna Olskroken human indeed represents arms or a spear. There notably is a third downward stroke, which is a more plausible representation of an arm. It is also too high up to be a sword scabbard. Moreover, the horizontal groove at Bottna Olskroken also lacks the typical spear-head. So there is nothing to suggest a warrior at Bottna Olskroken; not even the ubiquitous scabbard.

Surprisingly, a more obvious interpretation of the long groove, so characteristic for “stick-carrying disc-men”, seems to have been ignored in general. Especially at Bottna Olskroken the whole scene may well represent a shepherd with his flock; the horizontal groove simply being a shepherd’s staff. In this respect it is interesting to see that at Finntorp there is one “disc-man” carrying a shepherd’s crook with its typical curved end (Fig. 150.12).

On the Finntorp panel are several “shepherds” or “sun-gods” carrying staffs, again, however, interpreted as “enormously long spears” (Coles 1990: 34). There is the true “disc-man”, mentioned earlier, but also a very fine cup-and-three-rings within a “disc-man”. To me this triple “disc-man” at Finntorp (Fig. 150.11) and a similar example at nearby Aspeberget (Fig. 150.9) are two of the most convincing examples of the “re-sanctification” of an earlier, possible Neolithic, symbol. At both figures this has been simply achieved by adding a few grooves representing typical Bronze Age elements.

Fig. 155 shows two phases of engraving at Finntorp. The sequence clearly shows that it is possible that Bronze Age people “re-sanctified” Neolithic cup-and-rings. The Bronze Age “re-sanctification” of a Neolithic symbol should therefore never be ruled out and should only be dismissed after solid rebuttal. Also Coles leaves open the important

M. van HOEK: GEOGRAPHY193 FIGURE 155: FINNTORP, PHASES OF ENGRAVING.

possibility of “joining the old and the new” (1990: 36), although not specifically referring to “disc-men”.

Yet, there seem to exist two types of “disc-men”; both present at Finntorp (Fig. 155, type I and II). The panel notably also features at least two “warrior-disc-men”, comprising a simple cup-and-one-ring, but

holding an axe (Fig. 150.6-7 and Fig. 155, type II). Just possibly

these “warrior-disc-men”, generally carrying axes or bows, represent a

later phase of engraving when, during the late Bronze Age, warfare

became more common (compare with the “adoranten” at Aspeberget:

Fig. 152). Also at nearby Vitlycke (Fig. 150.14-15-16) and at

Aspeberget we find a number of these “warrior-disc-men”. The Norwegian example from Alkerød (Moe & Østmo 1994) may depict an archer in a group of belligerent “disc-bowmen” (Fig. 150.5).

In conclusion it must be stressed however, that there always will remain an element of doubt about the interpretation of a motif like a “shield” or “crook”. “If it is not found in a definite context, you are merely saying what it looks to you. If it closely resembles one of the definitive instances, your case is stronger, but it is never proven.”

(Bahn 1986: 118; adapted quotation).

~ CONCLUSIONS ~

Rock art may be regarded as a primary source of evidence of the beliefs and practices of prehistoric peoples. It also may tell us of evolutions and revolutions within these ancient societies. Unfortunately, much remains obscure because of lack of

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M. van HOEK: GEOGRAPHY194 (archaeological) information and as a consequence interpretation of rock art symbols and the establishing of sequences is difficult. Often superimpositions of rock art designs and the images themselves constitute the only bits of information available in this respect and especially abstract motifs are notoriously difficult to interpret. Their occasional combination with human elements presents a real puzzle altogether.

The main problem in these matters notably is how to distinguish combinations that originated simultaneously from instances of re-use or even from “re-sanctification”. It proves that many of these practices may be regarded as simple re-use, such as the human figure at the enormous Pu’uloa site on the Big Island of Hawai’i. Three cupules have been re-used (as suggested by Lee & Stasack 1999: 100) to form a small anthropomorphic figure (Fig. 180).

In other instances it is not clear whether abstract figures have been re-used or “re-sanctified. In Chile for instance, some of the decorated stones at the upper reaches of the Río Illapel (Ballereau & Niemeyer

1996) include anthropomorphic figures (Fig. 178) resembling the

Scandinavian “disc-men”. But it is uncertain whether these humans represent rare instances of re-use or “re-sanctification” of the scarcely occurring cup-and-ring motif in Chile.

Also in Europe instances of “liaisons” between abstract motifs and iconic elements are rare and moreover controversial. Yet, it is claimed in this chapter, there is one group of iconic figures, the “disc-men” of Bohuslän, that may represent a true case of “re-sanctification”. In previous chapters it notably has been demonstrated that it is possible that Scandinavian cup-and-rings indeed may be of Neolithic origin.

Having considered the known examples in Europe of cup-and-rings that are directly combined with human elements, there proves to be only little geographic congruency between the spread of cup-and-rings and that of anthropomorphs. Especially the total absence of human engravings on open air rock art sites in the British Isles, the area with the biggest concentration of cup-and-rings in Europe (about 7300 !)

and located between Galicia and Scandinavia, is most striking. This

enhances the idea that the “disc-men” of Bohuslän constitute a specific regional development involving the occasional “re-sanctification” of Neolithic cup-and-rings by Bronze Age people.

These instances of “re-sanctification” in Bohuslän may be explained by the idea that cup-and-rings were regarded as solar symbols by Bronze Age people. Ancient abstract motifs were gradually personified and ultimately incorporated into a human design in order to create a “sun- god” in agreement with their own culture in which the widespread cult of sun and fire necessary to smelt metal ores dominated. At first, it seems, this “re-sanctification” took place in a rather peaceful society, yielding imagery of the “shepherd-disc-man”, possibly representing