Factores generadores de violencia

The recent behaviors of African-American and Afro-Caribbean participants were compared to the norms they reported within their social environments. The similarities and

differences found as a result of this comparison are presented in Table 5.6. This section discusses participants’ recent healthy and unhealthy physical activity behaviors relative to the norms modeled in their social environments, and discusses other factors that could be influencing both healthy and unhealthy behaviors.

An examination of responses from African-American and Afro-Caribbean participants revealed that their recent physical activity behaviors were generally consistent with the norms modeled in their social environments. The behaviors reported by some women were consistent with those within their childhood social environments, while for others, their behaviors were consistent with those from their current social environments. Yet others reported behaviors that were consistent with the norms of both social environments; this was true in cases where the norms for both social environments were similar.

Among the African-Americans who reported behaviors consistent with those modeled in their childhood social environments, some said their recent physical activity behaviors were healthy. Others said they were practicing unhealthy physical activity behaviors. On the other hand all Afro-Caribbean participants who indicated that they were influenced by the norms of their childhood social environments said they had been practicing healthy behaviors.

Both African-American and Afro-Caribbean women reported behaviors that were consistent with those modeled among members of their current social environments. African- American participants seemed to be influenced more toward healthier physical activity behaviors by the behaviors among members of their current social environment versus those they saw modeled in their childhood social environment. However, for Afro-Caribbean participants, their current social environment seemed to influence them more toward less healthy physical activity behaviors than those modeled in their childhood social environment.

Table 5-6 Group similarities and differences – Social environment on physical activity-related attitudes and behaviors (RQ 5)

SIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES

Both groups African-Americans n=13 Afro-Caribbeans n=12  Approximately half of African-American and Afro-Caribbean participants reported healthy current physical activity behaviors

 Healthy physical activity lifestyle important to women in both groups

 The same number of women in both groups were influenced by the norms of their childhood social environment

 The same number of participants in both groups were influenced by current social environmental norms—some healthy, some unhealthy

 Some participants in both groups were influenced by behaviors of both their childhood and current social environments

 Factors attributed by women in both groups for insufficient physical activity: (a) time constraints; (b) unavailability of exercise partner; (c) security concerns

 Some African-American participants changed from the unhealthy behaviors modeled during their childhood to healthier physical activity lifestyle because of health reasons

African-Americans influenced by childhood norms practiced either healthy or unhealthy behaviors

Current environment of African- Americans more influential toward healthy behaviors (than their childhood environment)

 Some Afro-Caribbeans not as active as they were in their childhood

environments but others continued physically active lifestyle because they recognize the health benefits

 Afro-Caribbean participants influenced by childhood norms practices healthy behaviors

 Current environment of Afro-

Caribbean participants more influential toward unhealthy behavior (than the childhood environments)

 Weather and difference in the U.S. versus the Caribbean regarding attitude toward driving versus walking

Behavioral norms within the social environment provide models for the learning of similar behaviors (Anderson-Bill et al., 2011). More specifically, SCT posits that social norms affect health related behaviors (Anderson et al., 2006, 2007; Bandura, 1998; Baranowski et al., 2002; Cullen, 2001; Phelan, 2009). It is not surprising then that the recent behaviors of

participants’ resemble those modeled within their social environments. Previous research related to physical activity shows that African-American women who know other women that exercise are more likely to exercise (Wilbur, Chandler, Dancy, & Lee, 2003). This may partially explain why African-American women who grew up in childhood social environments in which physical activity was not modeled consistently or at all have recently changed to healthier behaviors; they are now involved with people in their current social environment who practice healthy physical activity behaviors.

Besides the influence of members of their social environments, participants’ recent behaviors were also reported to be motivated by health reasons. Some African-Americans said that because of health reasons, they had changed from the unhealthy behaviors modeled during their childhood and were recently practicing more healthy behaviors. Although a few Afro- Caribbean were not as consistently involved in physical activity as they were when they were younger or as modeled by adults in their childhood environment, many of them said they continued being physically active because it was a way of life for them and because they recognized the health benefits to continuing this healthy lifestyle. So, whereas African-

Americans changed from behaviors modeled during their childhood, to healthier behaviors, the Afro-Caribbean participants continued behaviors modeled during their childhood so they can remain healthy.

Despite some of the healthy behaviors modeled within participants’ social environments, and their health concerns, women from both groups reported impediments to consistent physical activity behaviors. These impediments included time constraints, unavailability of an exercise partner, and security concerns. These findings (relative to African-American participants) were consistent with Joseph, Ainsworth, Keller, and Dodgson’s (2015) review of the literature that

found lack of time and security were barriers to African-American women’s physical activity. Bandura concurs that both access to safe physical environments and social support affect

behavior (through self-efficacy) (Bandura, 1998). It is therefore understandable that these factors impede healthy physical activity behaviors for both sets of participants.

Because Afro-Caribbean participants seem to receive so much support and

encouragement for, and modeling of, a healthy physical activity lifestyle, it is important to understand why some of these women have not maintained healthy behaviors in this regard. Motivation from within the social structure provides incentives toward agentic decisions relative to the reproduction of deeply rooted health habits (Bandura, 1998). The close communication ties of the Afro-Caribbean participants with family and friends who model healthy physical activity behaviors influence the current behaviors of study participants and the motivation to continue healthy physical activity lifestyles. Nevertheless, the challenges of time, weather, and concern about their physical safety remain issues that need to be addressed. Bandura (1998) notes that social support alone may not be sufficient to produce the required physical activity behaviors. So, although the Afro-Caribbean women received more encouragement toward

physical activity behaviors, other factors mitigated regular exercise behavior. In addition to those named by both groups of women, Afro-Caribbean participants cited two additional impediments to consistent physical activity not mentioned by African-American participants. They indicated that the weather and the difference in the American culture—people driving everywhere they go instead of walking—made it difficult for them to continue behaviors that had become the norm for them.

In summary, the physical activity behaviors of participants in this study were consistent with those within their social environments. The behaviors of some participants were healthy and

for others, they were not healthy. Healthy physical activity behaviors among African-American participants were more consistent with those among members of their current social

environments than with those among members of their childhood social environment; unhealthy behaviors were more consistent with those from their childhood social environments. Healthy physical activity behaviors of Afro-Caribbean participants were more similar to those of their childhood social environments than to those within their current social environments. All Afro- Caribbean women who reported behaviors similar to those from their childhood reported healthy behaviors; unhealthy behaviors were more consistent with those of their current social

environments. Healthy physical activity behaviors of participants were also influenced by health concerns. Both groups of participants listed healthy physical activity lifestyle inhibitors, some of which were the same for both groups. Afro-Caribbean participants listed additional inhibitors. There are obvious associations between food-, physical activity-, and body image related attitudes and behaviors. To better understand these associations specifically among African- American and Afro-Caribbean participants, participants’ recent body image-related attitudes were compared to those among members of their social environments.