Formas de Pago Internacional

Raspberry growers need to eliminate weeds to obtain eff ective plant growth, to reduce moisture and fertilizer loss and to reduce shading and competition among raspberry plants. Weeds that grow tall, have thorns (thistle or horse nettle) or that produce vines that climb over plants impede hand harvesting because people do not want to be injured or they cannot fi nd the fruit. Growers also do not want weeds to restrict mechanical harvest or have pieces of these plants mixed with harvested fruit.

The use of herbicides and cultivation by plowing or rototilling can greatly reduce the weed pressure before, during and after planting. When planting into fi elds that have been in a monoculture (pasture, hay, or woody plants) for many years, it is wise to use a combination of herbicides and cultivation 1–2 years (years –1 to 0) before planting to reduce perennial weeds and their roots.

Using a safe herbicide in the row just after setting the plants can allow much less pressure of weeds in the second or third year. Research indicates that the use of a herbicide in the row and either seasonal cover crops or permanent sod in the drive row (alley) is a system of weed management that can benefi t many growers. As described above, using certain grasses to establish a permanent sod can reduce insects in harsh environments. Further, if a thick sod is immediately formed after planting, fewer weeds will emerge, and thus, sod becomes a biological weed control method.

116R.C. Funt and D.S. Ross

Elevation

Elevation

Elevation

Elevation

Electrical power

Well Scale:

Soil type:

Distance

Distance Elevation

Elevation Elevation

Length

Pond

Barn or shed

WidthWidth

Raspberry block

Raspberry block

N

Fig. 9.6. Planning information for irrigation system designer. (Adapted from: Ross, 2004.)

Soil and Water Management 117

Funt et al. (1998) in Ohio applied Oryzalin 4 AS at 4 l/0.4 ha (4 quarts/

acre) plus Isoxaben 75 DF at 590 g/0.4 ha (1.3 lb/acre) over the top of transplants several days after planting dormant tissue-cultured black raspberry plants (plugs) and nursery matured plants (plugs grown in the fi eld for 1 year). Transplants were set into cultivated, weed-free soil on raised beds. Straw mulch at 6.4 cm depth (2.5 in) was applied after the herbicide application. This treatment had the highest plant vigor and number of new shoots among the herbicides tested. Isoxaben alone had the fewest dandelion after planting and the following year. Straw mulch improved herbicide eff ectiveness and soil moisture. In a previous study, Erf and Funt (1984) found that Simazine 80% showed phototoxic symptoms when used on newly transplanted ‘Brandywine’ purple raspberry.

After planting, a weed-free area about 1–1.5 m (3–4 ft) wide should be maintained in the row middle. Fertilizer and irrigation are more effi ciently used when the root zone is maintained free of weeds. Growers may want to apply mulches, such as composted yard waste or sawdust, particularly during the fi rst year. An application of pea straw can be very eff ective. These can improve water-holding capacity but may contain weed seeds. Root systems tend to be shallower under these systems, and therefore, additional applications in year 2 or 3 may not be advisable. Growers should monitor nitrogen levels and be aware of mice or voles, which tend to nest or burrow in mulches during the autumn or winter. Together pre-emergence herbicides and mulching can prevent the establishment of most types of weeds (Table 9.2). However, some weeds may not be controlled and may need cultivation or careful removal by hand in the fi rst 2 years. The use of two or three diff erent herbicides, either as a single or combined spray and either in the spring and/or late autumn may be necessary in year 4 and later years.

The type of soil can aff ect the eff ectiveness of herbicides. Lower rates of some herbicides are used on sandy soils which may contain less than 1%

organic matter. Generally, silt loams with more than 2% organic matter may need higher rates to provide seasonal control of weeds and will not reduce raspberry plant growth. In some cases certain herbicides should not be used on certain soil types during the fi rst year. Also, frequent rainfall or irrigation can cause herbicides to be washed out of the top layer of soil and weed control is reduced or weeds are only controlled for one-half of a season. The selection and timing of the application of a herbicide is best made by reading the label, gaining experience on a small piece of land and/or obtaining information from a reputable dealer or consultant.

118 R.C. Funt and D.S. Ross

Table 9.2. Partial listing of herbicides for raspberries, Ohio (Doohan et al., 2010).

Trade name

Gallery Isoxaben Medium Caution 12 Non-bearing

Karmex Diuron Medium Caution 12

Solicam Norfl urazon Medium Caution 12

Surfl an Oryzalin Low Caution 12

Post-emergence control of grasses

Fusilade Fluazifop High Caution 12 Non-bearing

Poast Sethoxydim Low Warning 12

Scythe Pelonic acid High Warning 12

Select Clethodim High Warning 12 Non-bearing

Post-emergence

Soil and Water Management 119

REFERENCES

Doohan, D. et al. (2010) Midwest Small Fruit and Grape Spray Guide. Bulletin 506B. The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, pp. 1–68.

Erf, J.A. and Funt, R.C. (1984) Eff ect of herbicides on newly planted ‘Brandywine’ purple raspberry. Research Circular – Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center 283, 63–65.

Funt, R.C. and Bierman, P. (2000) Composted yard waste improves strawberry soil quality and soil water relations. Proceedings of the XXV International Congress.

Acta Horticulturae 517, 235–240.

Funt, R.C., Ross, D.S. and Brodie, L. (1980) Economic comparison of trickle and sprinkler irrigation of six fruit crops in Maryland, 1978. Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin M950, pp. 1–16.

Funt, R.C., Wall, T.E. and Stokes, B.D. (1998) Eff ect of new herbicides on tissue cultured black raspberry plants. Research Circular – Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center 299, 07–113.

Lea-Cox, J.D., Ristvey, A.G., Arguedas Rodriguez, F., Ross, D.S., Anhalt, J. and Kantor, G. (2008) A low-cost multihop wireless sensor network, enabling real-time management of environmental data for the greenhouse and nursery industry. Acta Horticulturae 801, 523–529.

Maloney, K.E., Wilcox, W.F. and Sandford, J.C. (1993) Raised beds and metalaxyl for controlling Phytophthora root rot of raspberry. HortScience 28, 1106–1108.

Ross, D.S. (2004) Drip irrigation and water management. In: Lamont, W.J. (ed.) Production of Vegetables, Strawberries, and Cut Flowers Using Plasticulture, NRAES-133. Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service (NRAES), Ithaca, New York, pp.

15–35.

Ross, D.S. and Wolf, T.K. (2008) Grapevine water relations and irrigation. In: Wolf, T.K.

(ed.) Wine Grape Production Guide for Eastern North America, NRAES 145. Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service (NRAES), Ithaca, New York, pp.

169–195.

Ross, H. and Auchter, E.C. (1930) A Production and Economic Survey of the Black Raspberry Industry in Washington County, Maryland. The University of Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station, College Park, Maryland, pp. 207–245.

Slate, G.L., Braun, A.J. and Mundinger, F.G. (1949) Raspberry growing; culture, disease and insects, Bulletin 719. Cornell Extension Bulletin, Ithaca, New York, pp. 1–68.

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© CAB International 2013. Raspberries (eds R.C. Funt and H.K. Hall) 121