Higiene, salud y riesgos laborales

It has been explained above (Section 3.2.6) that understanding and identifying an institution’s ‘structuration’ (Fuenfschilling and Truffer, 2014) is the starting point in understanding the ability of a transition to take place. Therefore, now that the social networks of the sociotechnical regime have been identified it is important to identify the institutions that make up each social network. It is important to remember the wider definition of institution as described by Hodgson (see Section 3.2.6 above) as opposed to the generalised understanding of an institution as being an organisation. In Chapter 2, Table 2.1 provided some of the institutions that exist within each social network. The narrative of the GEA report is again used to identify more of the institutions that are in each social network. Also used is empirical knowledge of the field of energy and transitions, publicly available reports etc.

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Institutions in the research network

The main research institutions that would affect the transition from AC voltage electrical system to a DC voltage electrical system in the UK include: The Institute of Engineering and Technology (IET), the Building Research Establishment (BRE), the British Standards Institute (BSI) and the National Physical Laboratory (NPL). Universities are a major source of research and together with energy and energy network companies are the backbone of research within the energy field. Whether it is an incubator company that seeks to develop a niche product or it is a multinational conglomerate that seeks to add new products to its portfolio, all companies’ research and development programmes are institutions in the research network.

Institutions in the standards, codes, regulations, and obligations network

Table 10.19 in the GEA (2012) sets out some of the control and regulatory instruments that a government can use in conjunction with energy policy: these include appliance standards,

building codes, and energy efficiency obligations and quotas. Further to this, is the Code of

Practice (CoP) and the Wiring Regulations BS 7671:2008- 2015 from the IET, and Health & Safety regulations. The British Standards Institute and the National Physical Laboratory are both instrumental in establishing standards. In appendix 2 there is a list of many standards that are geared to specific niche uses of DC voltage systems. Each looks at a specific usage such as for lighting in the office environment, for use in railways, ships, and cranes etc., however none of them are a comprehensive DC voltage standard for the built environment such as a domestic dwelling.

Both the IET and the IEEE recognise that there is a gap in availability of a DC standard for the home. The IET have decided that the pathway for a comprehensive grounded Standard is by firstly ratifying a CoP together with early take-up manufacturers of niche DC applications. The IEEE on the other hand has established a database of all known DC voltage standards that are pertinent to all niche applications, hence the compilation of the list in Appendix 2. It has its ‘DC in the Home’ standard committee, who in July 2015 became officially established (see

76 the existing standards that mention DC voltage systems and go directly to forming a DC standard for the home.

Institutions in the energy policy network

Cluster 4, of the GEA incorporates chapters 22 to 25 and is dedicated to many aspects about how energy policy interacts with energy systems transformations. Energy policy is a key factor in energy transitions, just as much as systematic or technological changes (GEA 2012, Section 16.4, p.1193).

“Policy aimed at fostering energy transitions will need to involve a range of government bodies at various administrative levels in the analyzing of problems and the designing and implementing of policies. Government, therefore, will be one of the key actors in the transition process at local, national, and international levels.” (GEA 2012, Section 25.10.3.2, p. 1790).

Therefore, the organisations that make up the institutions in the energy policy network include local, national and international government. Since each operates under different structuration they are therefore different distinct institutions in the policy network.

Table 10.19 in the GEA (2012), sets out some of the fiscal instruments and incentives that a government can use in conjunction with energy policy, these include taxation policy, including incentives that exempt or reduce the burden of taxation, and subsidies that include capital grants and subsidised loans. There are also public leadership programmes and education and information campaigns that inform the public about how they can help to fulfil the goals of the energy policy. These are therefore the channels of communication and points of dialogue between the energy policy network and other social networks in the electrical regime.

Institutions in the markets, suppliers & product manufacturers network

As has been explained above (Chapter 1), the model for the DC electrical system will be one that is of distributed form and can be off-grid. This means a change in the current model of the electricity supply away from the present centralised utilities. This does not mean that there will not be a place for the utilities. What is envisioned is a continual growth of what are called

77 energy service companies (ESCos). “ESCos are private or public companies that can provide the technical, commercial, and financial services needed for energy efficiency

projects”,(GEA 2012, Section 16.3.4). For the supply of a DC electrical system, there would

be an associated supply chain, which will include product manufacturers, wholesalers,

distributers, retailers, and house builders who want the products, and electrical installers who will also maintain the system after installation. The development of a market in DC products will have to have the cooperation of everyone throughout the supply chain. Success will depend on knowledge transfer between policy makers, societal networks, education and the media. These are therefore the links between this social network and many others.

Institutions in the finance and investment network

The International Energy Agency (International Energy Agency, 2014) estimates that the accumulative investment in energy supply and efficiencies required by 2035 globally will be between $48 and $53 Trillion, of which $2 Trillion will be needed in Europe just for the electricity sector. Much of the money needed in the developing world comes from the World Bank. In the developed world investment money may come internally from generated profits, from the money markets, from banks or from governments. Traditionally, for homeowners to finance a microgeneration system on their home, the money came from savings, a loan from a bank, a government grant or a combination of these. (The words italicised indicate the institutions in the finance and investment network.) Personal savings have been included as an institution, as not only are there reasons why someone saves, and rules and regulations surrounding personal savings schemes, there are also the cultural and social norms around a person’s decisions to use personal wealth for a microgeneration project. In the UK the government set up the first Green Investment Bank (Green Investment Bank, 2014) in the world, to finance things like renewable energy systems. Institutions in this network not only finance the end installation of systems, but are also involved in financing research and development. Therefore, via government this network is connected to the policy network, via property owners to the end user network, and via R&D to the research network.

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Institutions in the societal network

There are many organisations that through their outputs can influence the shape of the electrical regime, and therefore any transition to DC voltage systems. Some of these are the same as those in the nuclear safety regime shown in Figure 14.18 in the GEA report. They include: the media, international organisations, NGOs and professional networks. Many of the international organisations can be found in Annex 1 page 1810 of the GEA (2012).

Users network

The label “Users” is used very loosely, as besides the consumers, users must also include the electricians, technicians, and engineers that install and maintain the system but are not yet themselves consumers of DC electricity. They are included as users because; before they can certify the system it has to work properly and safely for them. Their interaction with the DC system has to be as if they are consumers to be able to test the system’s operability.

Dialogue and knowledge transfer (education)

Dialogue is about informing, educating, and bringing diverse opinions into the decision making process (GEA 2012, Section 25.10.2.4), it also provides a pathway for receiving feedback. It is not only important within a vertical approach to a single concept, it is also very important within a framework for implementing a cross disciplinary horizontal approach, such as the transition of the AC electrical system to a distributed DC topology. Dialogue is important in developing and institutionalising the ability for transitions to take place. Education is about knowledge transfer and exchange, which is important for a successful dialogue to take place. Developing and keeping a focus on transformative change, however, cannot succeed in the absence of broad-based support, continuous dialogue, and a long-term, systems-based approach to change. The arrows in Figure 3.5 represent the dialogue, knowledge transfer, outputs and inputs, and feedback loops that exist between the institutional actors of the different technical and social networks.

Governments are crucial actors when transitions in the energy regime are to take place. Adopting a systems approach and a multi-goal perspective will require dialogues across ministries and the creation of inter-ministerial teams for policy integration and coordination.

79 Technical System (T)

T1. The Electrical Supply system (Independent of grid or feed in?) T2. The whole smart electrical

system in the house T3. All smart (electrical) loads

Standards Network (ST)

ST1. International Standards ST2. Electrical regulations

ST3. Building regulations ST4. Communications protocols

ST5. Health & Safety ST6. Accreditation

ST7 Electro MagneticCompatibility

User Network (U)

U1. End users U2. Installers U3. Maintenance engineers

Supplier Network (SU)

SU1. Manufacturers SU2. House builders SU3. Installers SU4 .Superstores SU5 Utilities

Research Network (RE)

RE1. Research Bodies (EPSRC,ESRC) (academic/industrial) RE2 Standards Organisations

RE3. Educators/trainers RE4 Accreditation bodies RE5 Institutions (IET, BRE)

Societal Network (SN)

SN1 Standards Organisations SN2. Regulators SN3. Research Bodies

(academic/industrial) SN4 Industrial Lobbyists, trade

association & Unions SN5 Academic publications

& the media SN6 professional networks

SN7 NGOs

Policy Makers Network (PM)

PM1. Central Government PM2. EU Policy Makers PM3. Local Government PM4 Funding Bodies / Financiers

P1.Energy Policy P2. Decarbonisation P3. Energy Security P4. Energy Independence P5. International Treaties P6. Taxation

Finance Network (RE)

F1. Banks F2 The Money Markets

F3 Reinvested profits F4 Research Funding bodies F5 Public funding UK & EU

F6 Personal savings

Capacities for dialogue and policy coordination must therefore exist or be created. Access to knowledge and information – and the capacity to use such inputs – are critical in making choices about energy transitions, whether at the level of individual actors, communities, or national governments (GEA 2012, Section 25.10.3.2).

The institutions that makeup the social networks of the electrical regime

Bearing in mind Hodgson’s (2006) definition (Section 3.2.6 above), that an institution is more than just an organisation Figure 3.6 was populated with the different institutions for each of the networks in the electrical regime. The institutions and networks were initially derived from the GEA (2012) that was used to populate Table 2.1 above. Further to this, from the literature search more was added. This is not an exhaustive list but rather a representative list of institutions.

Figure 3.6 The institutions that make up the technical and social networks in the electricity regime.

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