A growing interest in preservice teacher education has resulted in a number of small-scale New Zealand studies that focus on ICT in preservice education. Most are based on surveys and questionnaires and reflect individual teacher educators’ interest in knowing about their preservice teachers’ skills and knowledge in ICT, preservice teachers’ perceptions about technology, and the impact of those ICT courses they teach. The majority of these studies have appeared in the New Zealand journal Computers in New Zealand Schools or have been presented at conferences. In this section I will review and discuss this literature under three headings: the practicum, ICT in preservice programmes and standards in ICT.
The practicum
The practicum is a key theme in this body of literature. Not surprisingly, the most common issue that stands out is whether the preservice teacher’s associate teacher uses ICT or not. Hunt (2000) explored this question in a survey of primary and early childhood preservice teachers in their first and third year, and secondary preservice teachers at the point of graduation at a large college of education. The results showed that many preservice teachers had not observed an experienced teacher use technology as part of the classroom programme. Many of the respondents also reported that they had not used ICT in their own teaching practice while on practicum. This is supported by my own qualitative study of four primary preservice teachers who were close to graduation. This study examined their sense of preparedness to use ICT (Elliot, 2004). My findings showed that the participants had not seen their associate teacher use technology meaningfully in the teaching and learning programme. They had made no planned use of technology themselves, nor had it been suggested that they include ICT in their planning. Tellingly, one participant commented that while most classrooms had
computers, he had never seen a teacher use them, while another reported that the computers were not turned on at all in a number of classrooms.
The disposition towards technology is one of the factors that affect teachers’ use of ICT in classrooms (Milbrath & Kinzie, 2000; Zhao et al., 2001). Shaw (2004)
compared preservice teachers’ attitude towards and confidence to use ICT in a one-year graduate programme. One group in the study consisted of preservice teachers who were two-thirds of the way though their programme. Data were gathered through two
questionnaires, with one distributed before the practicum and the other after. Questions asked included whether the preservice teachers knew what technology integration looked like. Before the practicum 72% of the group were reasonably confident they knew what integration of ICT looked like. After the practicum this self-confidence had dropped to 44%. The participants cited that reasons for this change were their associate teacher’s lack of ICT use and that students mainly used the computers to play games on a wet day. Shaw found that although the practicum confused the preservice teachers, their general attitude towards technology remained positive. Shaw (2004), Elliot (2004) and Hunt (2000) agree on the view that positive practicum experiences with ICT appear to be vital in preparing beginning teachers to use technology meaningfully. They
recommend that practicum placements be carefully selected to give preservice teachers exposure to good models for ICT use and that they be encouraged to experiment with technology supported by an experienced teacher. In this, they are in agreement with the international literature.
ICT in preservice programmes
Studies of ICT in preservice programmes were similarly small scale and assessed the outcome of individual courses. Several set out to challenge preservice teachers’ transmissive and teacher-centred conception of classroom learning. One such study was conducted by Forbes and Ipsen (2004), who were employed respectively in teacher
education and in a middle school. The participants consisted of five groups of first-year preservice teachers taking an ICT course, and five groups of technology-using middle school students attending an accelerated class. Prensky’s (2001) notion of ‘digital natives’ and ‘digital immigrants’ underpinned the research project. The middle school students were regarded as digital natives who had grow up with ICT, and the preservice teachers as digital immigrants, who had not. A second underpinning theme was the idea that students’ views are valuable but often ignored. The ICT preservice lecturer’s intention was to disrupt first-year preservice teachers’ tendency to view the role of the teacher as one of transmitting information and controlling the class. They contended that listening to students’ voices might challenge this view. Face-to-face meetings between the preservice teachers and the middle school students were held before an asynchronous online discussion was set up. Through interaction with the students in the online discussions the preservice teachers were challenged by the middle school
students and forced to reconsider the role of the teacher and of ICT in teaching and learning. The discussion also highlighted their shallow conception of technology use in teaching and learning.
The claim by Forbes and Ipsen (2004) that the middle school students were able to challenge and stimulate the preservice teachers’ thinking has some merit. However, the students’ phrase, “We don’t learn about ICT, we learn through ICT” (Forbes & Ipsen, 2004, p. 52), appears to be scripted from the current ICT rhetoric, exemplified by the Ministry of Education’s ICT policy: Digital Horizons: Learning through ICT
(2003). It is also debatable whether the students’ dialogue bore out the authors’
assertions. Furthermore, a level of technocentrism was evident in the students’ dialogue, demonstrated by a discussion of the relative merit of digital classrooms.
Another study that used technology to challenge preservice teachers’
ICT in the technology curriculum (Falloon, 2001). Third-year preservice teachers who took an optional ICT module, participated in an individual multimedia project. The preservice lecturer’s aim was to model a problem-solving approach to classroom use of ICT, which had the potential to illustrate the value of a student-centred pedagogical approach. In the process of completing the project, the preservice teachers were expected to develop ICT skills in a peer-supported environment scaffolded by the lecturer.
The project ran for 14 weeks with three hours per week class time and an expected 50 hours of additional time for personal study. The specific brief was to develop a solution to an identified information need or problem, using the technology curriculum’s technological practice approach (Ministry of Education, 1995). The result was to be presented on a CD or website. The preservice teachers had to carry out the necessary research including concepts in learning and cognitive theories, gather and analyse the data, conduct interviews and take video and still photographs. Throughout, they had to keep a reflective journal about the processes, knowledge and skills
developed and strategies used.
The reflective journals as well as informal observations and interviews formed the data for Falloon’s (2001) research. Findings were that this particular approach was highly motivating for the preservice teachers and resulted in a shift towards a
cooperative environment with widespread peer tutoring and cooperative problem solving. The preservice teachers found the technical skill development of particular value. They reported that the extent and depth of the project gave them skills and strategies that were transferable, thus increasing their self-efficacy beliefs. Issues noted included having access to ICT equipment suitable for the tasks, and difficulties
To plan for preservice teachers’ needs in ICT it is necessary to establish their prior knowledge. Hunt (2000), as reported earlier, surveyed the 1999 cohorts of primary and early childhood preservice teachers in their first and third year and graduate
secondary preservice teachers in a large college of education. The survey sought to establish the preservice teachers’ ICT and pedagogical skills in relation to technology use. The findings led Hunt to make some pertinent observations. While he rejects standards as a means of determining what preservice teachers should know, he calls for research to establish what can realistically be learnt in a preservice programme. He advocates that new graduates should know not only how to use technology, but also have a clear understanding of the role of ICT in schools. In addition, they must have a well-grounded philosophy of teaching. Hunt is not convinced that more technology in itself will lead to greater ICT capability in beginning teachers. He argues that little government investment has gone into ICT development for colleges of education. He nevertheless recommends that teacher educators examine their own teaching practice with technology and undertake research to inform this practice, preferably with the material support of the Ministry of Education.
Hope (2004) carried out a similar questionnaire-based study on preservice
teachers’ prior knowledge about ICT. The participants were preservice teachers in either their second or final year, or in a one-year graduate programme. The questionnaire was distributed at the beginning of their ICT-orientated coursework. One hundred and thirty females (79.3%) and 34 males (20.7%) returned the questionnaire. One section of the questionnaire contained 27 items about prior technical knowledge and competence. A main finding was that the mean self-rating did not reach a ‘confident user’ level on any of the types of prior knowledge, for example email and operating systems. Hope argued that with the paucity of New Zealand research on ICT in preservice teacher education and beginning teaching, it is not possible to conclude whether overseas experiences
apply to the New Zealand context. However, at the conclusion of the study he conceded that unless preservice programmes develop ways to increase preservice teachers’ level of technology skills, New Zealand beginning teachers risk remaining as poorly prepared to use ICT as they are reported to be in overseas studies.
Standards in ICT
As discussed in the section on the international literature, graduating standards in ICT for preservice teachers have been introduced in some countries, notably in the United States and in the United Kingdom. Issues implicit in the possibility of graduating ICT standards being introduced in New Zealand are discussed by Hope (2001). He expresses concern at the lack of prescribed ICT knowledge currently underpinning education, given the ubiquitous nature of technology in the world. One problem he identifies is that ICT is but one of the technology curriculum’s seven areas for study; and even here, there is no indication of the specific ICT knowledge and skills to be learnt. From Hope’s perspective, it is therefore entirely serendipitous what beginning teachers will know about and be able to do with ICT. Their capability will depend on innovations in preservice programmes and the preservice teachers’ prior skills and knowledge. In discussing what possible graduating standards in ICT might look like, Hope dismisses the notion of mechanistic standards. He argues that learning theory relevant to technology use must also be a component. Above all, input from the teacher education sector would be critical.
Meanwhile, Brown and Vossler (2000) go further by arguing that standards in ICT are inconsistent with the meaningful use of technology in teaching and learning. They contrast a mechanistic view of teaching with that of teaching as a cognitive process underpinned by a broad understanding of educational theory and the context of education. While they acknowledge that ICT standards may increase the status of teaching and perception of teacher professionalism, they claim that standards in ICT
will not change preservice teachers’ beliefs about teaching. They concur with the international literature that standards in ICT are likely to limit preservice teachers’ preparation to that which the standards require. Standards should address the issue of preparing teachers from a critical perspective rather than focussing on technology per se.
To summarise, New Zealand research on ICT in preservice teacher education is very limited. Most of the extant studies are small-scale and survey-based. A number investigated the effect of the practicum on preservice teachers’ knowledge and skills in using technology meaningfully in the classroom. Two issues about the practicum stood out: the need for preservice teachers to see experienced teachers model ICT use, and the opportunity to use technology themselves in a classroom. However, few preservice teachers in these studies did so. The likely effect of the introduction of standards in ICT was also discussed.
Chapter Summary
In this chapter, I reviewed the international and New Zealand literature. The purpose was to establish what is known about beginning teachers and their use of ICT for teaching and learning. The literature searches revealed that over a number of decades beginning teaching has been of particular interest to researchers in the
international arena; yet relatively few scholars have examined the challenges beginning teachers face in their journey towards becoming technology-using teachers. In contrast to the limited studies about beginning teachers and technology, the literature on
preservice preparation in ICT is prolific.
In reviewing the literature, I first examined the international studies and discussed them in the following groupings: learning to be a teacher, learning to be an ICT-using teacher, conceptions and beliefs about ICT, and preservice preparation and
ICT. The literature confirmed that teaching is contextual and an intellectual endeavour as well as a practical craft with no recipe for effective practice.
Two major influences on beginning teachers’ development stood out: induction and school culture. Schools with a strong focus on beginning teacher development were likely to have an induction policy. Collaborative and integrated professional cultures, characterised by inclusiveness and support, were identified as critical to beginning teacher development. In contrast, veteran-oriented, individualistic and balkanised cultures made support for beginning teachers more difficult. Another point raised was the need for beginning teachers to develop micropolitical literacy in order to achieve their professional goals.
Emergent themes identified in the international literature on learning to be ICT- using teachers were: beginning teachers work in highly complex settings; their access to ICT resources and technical support is inadequate; observing experienced colleagues and enacting new insights with support is pivotal; and having mentors who are aware of the conceptual differences in the actions and thinking of beginning and experienced teachers is critical. The review indicated that beginning teachers’ meaningful use of ICT is an issue of ongoing debate and concern.
Next, the chapter considered the influence of teachers’ conceptions and beliefs about ICT. A number of rationales were examined. The literature showed that teachers could hold multiple competing and co-existing justifications for ICT use in schools. Teachers’ conceptions and beliefs were shown to be the greatest predictor of how and to what ends they used ICT in their practice. Teachers therefore need strategic knowledge to enable them to analyse the assumptions that underpin their views.
The key challenges in preservice preparation in ICT were found to be the modelling and meaningful use of technology within preservice programmes, observing and using technology on the practicum, learning about pedagogical content knowledge
with (and without) ICT, and to teach and learn with standards. Except for a few notable exceptions, most studies evaluated single courses, were technocentric in their focus and small in scale. The need for preservice teachers to see experienced teachers model the meaningful use of ICT and to use technology themselves on practicum was an issue on which the literature was in agreement. Two scholars explored the concept of
pedagogical content knowledge in teachers’ technology use, pointing to a new level of understanding of teacher thinking. Lastly, standards as a means to improving beginning teachers’ preparedness in ICT were discussed.
Next the chapter moved to review the New Zealand literature. The literature search had shown a dearth of literature on beginning teachers’ use of ICT. To establish the context for beginning teachers’ development in New Zealand, studies of policy and practice for teacher registration and induction were reviewed. It was found that many beginning teachers do not receive sufficient support during the initial year of teaching.
In the last section of the review the chapter discussed New Zealand research on ICT in preservice teacher education. As in the international literature, the practicum was considered important to preservice teachers’ development of skills and understanding in using technology in teaching and learning. Another point made was the need for
lecturers to model technology use in preservice teacher education programmes. Finally, the implications of standards in ICT in New Zealand were discussed.