I. La imagen y el vestigio: dos modos de la comunicación de los atributos divinos
3. Nota sobre el concepto de imagen
3.1. La imagen en cuanto símbolo
The key findings of the study presented in this chapter are:
(1) Using five different types of substrate it is shown that the stability of thin films of
B-γ CsSnI3 perovskite towards oxidation in air depends strongly not only on the density of microscopic pinholes and fissures, but also on the density of grain boundaries between CsSnI3
stallites. X-ray diffraction measurements performed on perovskite films prepared in the same
way as for PV devices, show that the stability of CsSnI3 films towards oxidation in air is not
strongly dependent on preferred orientation of the CsSnI3 crystallites.
(2) We have shown that CuI is unsuitable as the HTL in CsSnI3 inverted PV when using
DMF as the solvent, because it is almost completely displaced by the CsSnI3precursor solution
during the spin coating process and its large ionisation potential is poorly matched to the
valance band edge of CsSnI3. It is likely that a similar problem will arise if DMF is substituted
by another polar solvent.
(3) It is shown that unencapsulated PV devices based on an inverted bilayer device archi-
tecture using ITO or semi-transparent Au, as the hole-extracting electrode without an HTL
are more stable than those using the archetypal HTL PEDOT:PSS when tested under 1 sun
constant simulated illumination in ambient air. This difference is attributed to the inferior film
forming properties of CsSnI3on PEDOT:PSS combined with its well-known hygroscopic nature.
Whilst chemical modification of PEDOT:PSS to rectify the problem of film uniformity may be
possible, the hygroscopic nature is a particular problem for CsSnI3 based PVs because H2O in
known to initiate oxidation of CsSnI3, and so hygroscopic materials immediately adjacent to
CsSnI3 should be avoided.
(4) PV devices using ITO only as the hole-extracting electrode exhibit the highest stability,
with 30% reduction in efficiency only after ∼ 20 hours testing in air for the champion device, which is very high for an unencapsulated tin perovskite PV device tested in air. However,
devices using a model semi-transparent 8 nm gold window electrode also exhibit good stability,
which indicates that this simplification in device structure could be generalised to other stable
hole-extracting electrodes.
(5) The reason for the deterioration in devices using ITO, Au and PEDOT:PSS with time
of the CsSnI3 layer recovered from devices tested in ambient air for 24 hours without device
encapsulation, reveals that≤11% of the CsSnI3film has oxidised to Cs2SnI6. Consequently, the deterioration in device efficiency over this time frame does not primarily result from a reduction
in the light absorption capability of the perovskite film due to oxidation of the CsSnI3 layer.
(6) Finally, the results of the photoelectron spectroscopy study have shown (for the first
time) that when CsSnI3is synthesised in the presence of SnCl2as a source of excess Sn the work
function of the perovskite is reduced from ∼ 4.85 eV to ∼4.45 eV, which is consistent with a reduction in the density of Sn vacancy defects in the perovskite. Notably, this reduction in work
function ensures that the work function of CsSnI3is smaller than most hole-extracting electrode
materials used in perovskite and organic PV research, and so in most instances a Schottky
contact will be formed that would operate to selectively block the unwanted extraction of
electrons. This, combined with the added complexity in fabrication and potential for additional
degradation pathways that comes with the inclusion of an HTL into the device architecture,
brings into question the rationale for the inclusion of an HTL in this type of device.
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Chapter 6
A and B-site Substitution in CsSnI
3
6.1
Background
The optoelectronic properties of tin and lead halide perovskites are highly tunable, since by
changing the elements occupying different sites of the perovskite lattice the energy of the
valence and conduction band edges, Eg and the stability towards oxidation can all be tuned.
In this chapter the findings of experiments investigating the use of Sr B-site substitution, and
CH3NH3+and Rb+A-site substitution are reported. CH3NH3+has been used as an A-site cation
extensively for lead halide perovskite and in a few reports relating to tin halide perovskites.[1–3]
For lead-halide PPVs the use of mixed A-site cations has been widely studied, most notably
in the context of formamidinium methylammonium lead halide perovskites,[4, 5] and the triple
cation system Cs1–x–y(FA)x(MA)yPbI3.[6] There has also been some interest in mixed Sn-Pb
perovskites due to the reduction in Eg that the inclusion of Sn imparts without compromising
Voc too much.[7, 8] Previous computational study has predicted that Rb substitution into
CsSnI3 would lead to ferroelectric properties which, it was proposed, could enable more efficient