Instrucción de RPAS

students definitely must undergo while studying in a foreign country. For any individual, moving from one learning context to another can be unsettling. Research suggests that this adjustment is especially difficult for international students. For instance, education in a host country was found to be an

important and unavoidable adjustment challenge for international students (Parr, Bradley, & Bingi, 1992; Zhai, 2002). An investigation (Mehdizadeh & Scott, 2005) on Iranian international students’ adaptation to Scottish universities discovered that Iranian students usually faced challenges related to their academic studies. International students often faced more and greater

adjustment difficulties than domestic students (Andrade, 2006; Beaver & Tuck, 1999; Hechanova-Alampay, Beehr, Christiansen, & van-Horn, 2002). A

longitudinal study (Hechanova-Alampay et al., 2002), surveying issues regarding the adaptive hardship, stress, and adjustment of 294 foreign and American students during their first six-month study at a mid-western American

48

public university, also reported that international students had more difficulties adjusting to university life than Americans.

The different ways that this adjustment may be demonstrated vary according to the cultural learning norms of the student and those of the host university. For example, an investigation (Yan & Berliner, 2009) on Chinese international

students’ academic stressors in the United States reported that academic stress was very high for most of the international students in the study because

“[c]ulture and education disparities between China and America, together with Chinese students’ language deficiencies, ineffective interactions with American faculty members, and their high motivations to achieve contribute[d] to their academic stress” (p. 939). Research (Yan & Berliner, 2011) regarding Chinese international students’ adjustment challenges in the United States discovered that Chinese international students were usually expected to develop

considerable self-management and self-discipline in the American academic setting; however, it was not so easy for them to do so because American educational and learning styles were different from the learning styles, which emphasized strict direction and rigorous discipline, that they were used to in their home country. Chinese students were usually hesitant and unwilling to start a conversation with their professors because they were unsure and unfamiliar with the norms of behaviors regarding how to interact with their professors and how to build a teacher-student relationship. Additionally, an inquiry (Wang & Shan, 2007) into the academic adjustment experiences of Chinese international students in Australia, employing qualitative interviews with ten Masters coursework students from Mainland China at two Australia

universities, found that Chinese international students in Australia faced

difficulties or issues regarding English language proficiency, class participation, assessment approaches different from previous experiences in their home country, and different academic conventions. The Australian academic practice required students to be more independent and self-responsible, which was different from the previous experiences of Chinese international students. Concerns regarding inadequate language, losing face and different previous learning practices might hinder students’ class participation in questioning, debate, and discussion. Chinese students were used to exam evaluations and

49

individual assignments, rather than group work; nevertheless, assessment approaches in Australia were quite diverse. Issues regarding plagiarism, referencing, and time management also affected Chinese students’ adaptation to Australian academic experiences. Additionally, because of cultural

differences, research indicates that international students need to adjust

themselves to various academic issues, including writing or learning styles. For instance, a case study (Tran, 2007), researching the academic writing skill adjustment of five Chinese and Vietnamese Masters international students studying in education and economics at an Australian university, found that the adjustment of international students to disciplinary writing was diverse.

A key issue in managing academic adaptation is language. Inadequate language competency (Choi, 2006) or language proficiency (Andrade, 2006; Gourlay, 2006; Wang & Shan, 2007) was discovered as one important factor associated with the academic adjustment of international students. Language difficulties or hindrance substantially affected the adjustment of international students (Zhai, 2002). Students with better academic performances generally showed both better language ability and overall adjustment, so English

competence significantly and positively predicted the academic achievement of international students (Poyrazli & Kavanaugh, 2006). A regression analysis showed that English ability was the only significant and negative predictor of academic stress. Asian international students usually had more difficulties than European international students in language competence, academic

performance, and overall adaptation. International students more frequently lacked confidence in their English abilities and feared making mistakes, and this situation hindered their class participation (Andrade, 2006). A survey (Beaver & Tuck, 1999), examining concerns and anxieties, competence or self-efficacy in academics, and preferences of learning strategies, also uncovered that Asian students showed less confidence in their language ability, especially in oral and written English, than Pakeha students. Importantly, Asian students needed more assistance in language improvement. Additionally, language barriers and communication problems were associated with the academic adjustment of Chinese international students (Yan & Berliner, 2011). “[L]ack of contextual knowledge or cultural background, infrequent chances to practice English, and

50

inadequate language training were the most significant factors” (p. 180). Another study (Bacon, 2002) revealed that socially and academically learning the rules of a language benefited mostly the application of this language within its socio-cultural setting. Informal experiences were generally more important than formal experiences in language learning. However, experiences both inside and outside academic contexts particularly influenced each other and improved overall foreign language proficiency. Therefore, expressing personal experiences through writing and speaking was importantly advised to improve adjustment and language skills of learners within a foreign culture.

In addition to language proficiency, cultural factors (Andrade, 2006) and

unfamiliar and deficient cultural knowledge in the host history (Choi, 2006) were also found to be key factors facilitating student adjustment. Other various factors or demographic characteristics were also found to significantly

contribute to the academic adjustment of international students. For instance, a survey study (Poyrazli & Kavanaugh, 2006), researching the relationship among academic performance (GPA), marital status, race, and adjustment stress of international students, found that several demographic characteristics (such as English language ability, ethnicity, and degree of study) were associated with the academic adjustment of international students. In addition to English language ability, study degree (masters or doctoral) significantly and positively predicted academic achievement: Masters students had more difficulties in language and academic performance than doctoral students. Additionally, females usually showed more stress with issues regarding accessing lectures, class discussion or questioning, and learning strategies (Beaver & Tuck, 1999). Duration of residence also affected adjustment, although gender differences in the same study were uncovered not to be associated with both adaptive barriers and adjustment strategies (Choi, 2006). Additionally, self-efficacy was also discovered to be positively associated with the adjustment of both domestic and international students (Hechanova-Alampay et al., 2002). Pre-arrival

information regarding academic studies, interaction or relationship with supervisors, and learning strategies or approaches were also found to

importantly affect the academic adjustment of Iranian students (Mehdizadeh & Scott, 2005). Academic or study skills, motivation, and academic background

51

characteristics (such as age and years of study), language (TOEFL) scores and writing skills were discovered to significantly contribute to both student learning outcomes and the academic adjustment of international students (Andrade, 2006). Furthermore, a study (Ladd & Ruby, 1999) regarding learning style and adjustment issues of international MBA students showed that the match and adjustment between students’ learning styles and instructors’ teaching styles benefited the success of the researched international MBA students in the US. Its quantitative survey investigation via the Canfield Learning Styles Inventory (Canfield, 1992) showed that the international MBA students liked to work independently through direct contact experiences. They were more interested in objectives directly relevant to their special interests and studies, or particular occupations associated with people and human behavior. Finally, Choi (2006) also reported that academic preparation or practices, social interaction with teachers or classmates, the gap between individual expectations and study requirements, insufficient faculty support, pressure, and institutional rigidity or inflexibility were difficulties associated with the academic adjustment of

international Asian students in the US.

Institutional support and awareness of issues related to adaptation importantly contribute the adjustment of international students to a host environment (Choi, 2006). In order to help international students have better academic adjustment and succeed academically, language is frequently the focus of support in the host institution. Language support workshops (Zhai, 2002), content-based ESL courses (Andrade, 2006), or special language courses (Poyrazli & Kavanaugh, 2006), and opportunities or resources for English improvement (Yan & Berliner, 2009) were commonly suggested as support mechanisms for language

improvement. In addition to more knowledge and insights into adaptation issues, more mutual respect and cultural understanding between instructors and learners, and more strategies adopted by teachers or professors for supporting and easing the efficient adjustment of international students were advised by Wang and Shan (2007) to improve international students’ academic adjustment. Andrade (2006) also recommended that teachers should try to understand more about international students’ various adjustment challenges and make pedagogical or teaching adjustments to support the needs of

52

international students. Lecturers’ clear explanation of academic requirements and understanding of students’ difficulties and values or perceptions in writing practices were suggested for improving the writing discipline of international students (Tran, 2007). Developing knowledge about special needs and problems of international students, being familiar with the life and adjustment issues of international students, and helping international students use the available resources for academic successes were also recommended by Yan and Berliner (2009) for professors to help international students with better academic adjustment. Support from a mentor (Choi, 2006), faculty guidance and support (Hechanova-Alampay et al., 2002), and interaction or

communication between students and instructors (Ladd & Ruby, 1999) were also advised as beneficial approaches for improving academic adjustment. Peer study partnership in academic settings (Andrade, 2006; Zhai, 2002), workshops or support groups (Poyrazli & Kavanaugh, 2006), learning communities (Andrade, 2006) and advice or assistance from experienced cohorts (Hechanova-Alampay et al., 2002) were also found to contribute to the learning of international students. Effective orientation services (Hechanova- Alampay et al., 2002; Yan & Berliner, 2009) and academic orientation for introducing academic requirements (Ladd & Ruby, 1999; Zhai, 2002) were also suggested for improving adjustment. Others, such as more pre-departure information about life and study in overseas and good preparation for the upcoming learning adjustments (Yan & Berliner, 2011), building up sufficient background knowledge in study fields (Choi, 2006; Yan & Berliner, 2009), support courses or comprehensive programs (Andrade, 2006), suitable interventions (Poyrazli & Kavanaugh, 2006), and publicizing the university counseling services to international students (Yan & Berliner, 2009) were also recommended as beneficial approaches. Finally, Choi (2006) reported that self- improvement, assistance from various people, allowing oneself some time for transformation, search of available resources, rejoicing in life or oneself , “[f]ind[ing] a mentor, working hard, managing stress, finding focus, learning language and culture, persevering, [and] communicating need” (p. 57), were coping strategies that led to better academic adjustment.

53

2.2.3 Empirical Research on Socio-cultural Experience and Adjustment