different issues related to their socio-cultural adjustment while studying abroad. For instance, Beaver and Tuck (1999) researched the adjustment of overseas students at a tertiary institution in New Zealand and found that Asians and Pacific Islanders had more positive attitudes toward heterogeneous classes with students from diverse cultural backgrounds than Pekeha students. Asian
students possessed stronger concerns regarding making friends. Females showed more stress around issues of health and family. Furthermore, research (Poyrazli & Kavanaugh, 2006), investigating whether and how marital status, race, and academic performance (GPA) were associated with the adjustment stress of international graduate students at five US universities, found that
single foreign students needed more support or assistance for social adjustment. A study (Leung, 2001) on the psychological, social, and academic adjustment of 382 international, migrant, and Anglo-Australian university students in
Melbourne, Australia further discovered that students with different ethnic backgrounds showed different degrees of “loneliness, social self-efficacy, locus of control, and academic satisfaction” (p. 251).
In addition to academic experiences, international students also have to adjust to many socio-cultural challenges in a host country. International students often face language barriers and cultural differences (Wu & Hammond, 2011) in their socio-cultural experiences. Research (Parr et al., 1992; Zhai, 2002) showed that cultural dissimilarities were important adjustment challenges for
international learners. Adjusting to new cultural norms, increasing cultural understanding, and improving community inclusion were socio-cultural
challenges that international students had to face while studying abroad (Sherry, Thomas, & Chui, 2010). Other issues, such as financial support, upkeep of full- time visa status, social networks or interconnection, and narrow life experiences, were also related to studying abroad experiences (Choi, 2006). Hechanova- Alampay et al. (2002) reported that the first three months of study abroad were usually the most difficult time for international students. Adjustment
experiences of each international student varied because of differences in “self- efficacy, social support, and cultural novelty [cultural dissimilarity between a
54
host and a sending home country]” (p. 458). Yan and Berliner (2011) found that Chinese international students experienced high levels of culture shock and difficulties in life adjustment to a host country or culture. They “often felt
disappointed with their experiences, particularly if their expectations about life in the United States had been high” (p. 181). These difficulties in socio-cultural adjustments often resulted in frustration and anxiety. Additionally, Mehdizadeh and Scott (2005) investigated adjustment problems of Iranian international students in Scotland and found that cultural differences, the Scottish language or accent, recreational or social activities, living facilities, and raising children in a foreign culture were common obstacles challenging their cultural adaptation: “The greatest cultural problems for the students were bringing up children in a different culture and also participation in social or leisure activities” (p. 488). Additionally, personal and spousal employment and (pre-arrival) information regarding financial support, accommodation, living facilities, childcare, health, medicare, and insurance were discovered to be unavoidable issues impacting and influencing their overseas life adaptation.
Among many issues related to socio-cultural adjustment, social networking and interaction are essential issues and should not be ignored in international students’ socio-cultural experiences. An investigation (Rajapaksa & Dundes, 2002) on whether international students faced more adaptation difficulties than domestic students reported that social networks played an important role in international student adjustment to American college life whereas the number of close friends did not successfully predict the social networking satisfaction of the researched international students. The number of friends a student had was also not related to the adjustment of both international and American college students. Wu and Hammond (2011) found that interaction with host students or nationals seldom happened to international students “[u]nless
contact was facilitated through shared accommodation or structured encounters in social or academic setting” (p. 436). East Asian Masters students’ cross- cultural adjustment was related to the satisfaction levels of their social participation with other international students. They experienced “an
‘international postgraduate student culture’ rather than integration into local culture” (p. 423). This international postgraduate student culture was “defined
55
by its widespread use of English; participation of students from a range of national backgrounds; and a focus on achieving academic success” (p. 435). Within this culture, students connected with students from the same or similar culture background and had constant interests in or contact with issues or events in the sending country through technology such as ICT. Additionally, Yan and Berliner (2011) found that Chinese international students tended to have more frequent interaction with co-nationals. It was usually difficult for them to start social contact or interaction with host students or nationals, even though they wished to have greater socio-cultural interaction. The researched Chinese international students also indicated that their social and emotional needs were best met through interacting with students or people from the same home country. However, this situation made them more isolated from the host culture. Moreover, research (Al-Sharideh & Goe, 1998), quantitatively
investigating how factors associated with ethnic communities influenced
individual adaptation of foreign students at an American state university, mainly found that ties and social relationships with cohorts from the same country or a similar culture, including ethnic communities within an American university, importantly contributed to the personal adjustment or adaption of international students to American life.
It is very important to gather knowledge regarding the socio-cultural needs and adjustment of international students in order to provide various available
resources or services to improve their experiences. Social support mechanisms especially play an important role in the socio-cultural adjustment of international students. Hechanova-Alampay et al. (2002) found that foreign students usually obtained less social support than the host students. Because of differences in language ability and cultural background, international students especially need special social support that differs from that of domestic students (Lacina, 2002). The type of social support is more helpful than its amount to international
students (Hechanova-Alampay et al., 2002). Especially, contact, interaction, and friendship with host nationals can best benefit students’ adjustment. Research (Zhai, 2002) found that international students hoped to increase and improve their interaction with host students, although they often sought
56
relevant support services in social custom acculturation were very important for a better host adjustment. For instance, improving social networking (Ladd & Ruby, 1999), interaction with domestic people (Poyrazli & Kavanaugh, 2006), and socialization or participation in the host culture (Yan & Berliner, 2009) were also suggested as approaches for improving socio-cultural adjustment and transformation. “Many international students [got] the impression that any experiences of social isolation [were] due to their own deficiencies in the English languages” (Sherry et al., 2010, p. 44), so enhancing cross-cultural understanding, increasing and providing more opportunities for international students to get involved in the local university community, and improving opportunities or resources for international students to improve their language skills were recommended for bettering their socio-cultural adjustment.
Additionally, “[a] social club could be established to enhance the links between international students and other students on campus, potentially focusing on informal social interactions and improving the verbal communication skills of international students” (p. 45). Consequently, counseling services (through various approaches) and language support workshops or partnership in daily life settings were commonly suggested for higher education institutions to better international students’ adaptation (Zhai, 2002). International student services, various student clubs or societies, and English conversation groups or clubs to meet with native speakers were also approaches often strongly advised to help international students have better and more positive socio-cultural experiences (Lacina, 2002). However, Lacina (2002) indicated that for some
misunderstanding, international students might also have concerns regarding counseling services, although they often faced more life stress or difficulties in social experiences and needed more assistance than native students.
Therefore, the question of how to encourage international students to use the official counseling services with more open and healthy attitudes is another challenge for relevant university support staff. Finally, it was also found that “technology eased the networking of students on campus and facilitated a sense of connection with family and friends back home and indeed across the world” (Wu & Hammond, 2011, p. 436). Therefore, it is very important for educational institutions to provide convenient IT services to help international
57
students maintain their connections with friends globally as well as maintain family communication.