Interacción de bisulfato de sodio con una sola lámina de grafeno

higher education. In 1981, two BAKWATA-owned schools in Tanga (Jumuiya) and Dar es Salaam (Kinondoni) turned into so-called seminaries. The word is borrowed from the Christians and denotes a “Muslims only” school attempt- ing to integrate secular education with Islamic worldviews. The govern- ment decided to ban this experiment and forced the schools to open their doors to non-Muslims, which they did and still do. This traumatic experience

continues to appear in articles on Muslim education.23

Recent attempts to start Muslim seminaries have been more successful. In Tanga, the African Muslim Agency (AMA) schools al-Kheir (for girls) and Noor (for boys) are examples.24

In the era of liberalisation and privatisation, Muslims grasped the opportunity to establish private schools offering a state-approved cur- riculum. For example, a substantial part of the 341 privately-owned primary schools (December 2005) belongs to Muslims. Seven out of 18 private pri- mary schools in Tanga are Islamic (five AMYC, two AMA). Among them, the AMYC Arafa primary school (English/Arabic medium) has the longest his- tory in Tanga (it was registered in 1999) and its students’ performance in the national final exams is impressive. The AMYC pays more attention to reli- gious subjects than other Muslim schools: they offer three different courses

in Arabic, Qur’an and Islamic Knowledge.25

Jumuiya only teaches Arabic and Islamic Knowledge while Maawa-l Islam offers only Islamic Knowledge. School fees for primary education at Arafa amount to 44,000 Shilling (USD 44), whereas Jumuiya Secondary School asks parents to pay 80,000 Shilling (USD 80) a year.

While some studies suggest that madrasa education can be comple-

mentary and parallel to the government school system,26

I believe that both systems at the higher level are mutually exclusive. Overall, secular, ‘modern’ education has a higher status than religious schooling according to students in both schools.27

Many higher level madrasa students pointed out that their decision to study religion was made only when they failed to qualify for secondary education. The director of an Islamic secondary school in Dar es Salaam told me that, because both systems are no longer compatible, he also taught in primary and secondary school during the ‘Maarifa ya Uislam’ (Islamic Knowledge) classes.28

All of the Islamic Knowledge teachers whom I know of are also madrasa teachers. It appears that close links exist between both systems. Teaching takes place at the same hours and the demands of a

secondary education leave little time for the additional burden of madrasa

learning. The students I met who participate in both forms of education read

with individual tutors or enrol in the madrasa linked to their own school.

the same premises. This facilitates arrangements for students following both programs. Out of 187 Maawa-l Islam students who answered my questions on this subject, only 31 were enrolled in both systems.29

The teaching of Islamic Knowledge in government schools is con- ducted according to a state-approved curriculum, although the teaching material is developed by non-governmental organisations. In the past, the Islamic Propagation Centre (IPC) published most of the schoolbooks, but more recent material has been jointly produced by the IPC and the nation- al Muslim Council, BAKWATA. The text of the books is often written on the blackboard because none of the students are able to buy his or her own copy (sold for 3,000 Shilling (USD 3). Local organisations like the MV9 mosque in Tanga have made summaries of these books. The content of these books is careful and balanced, and shows an awareness of the complex religious situation in Tanga and Tanzania. In the case of sensitive issues like the date of the Idd el-Hajj, or the question of whether women are allowed to pray in mosques, none of the actual players in the religious field are mentioned by name. Each point of view is given and their proofs from Qur’an and Sunna are carefully presented. Other sources are quite rare but in the higher lev- els (form III and IV) and the A-levels (form V and VI according to the British system), more attention is given to argumentation and the refutation of, for example, atheistic reasoning. The AMYC school-books are produced by

Saudi Arabian foundations such as al-Haramain (Riyadh).30

The teaching atmosphere in the government-approved schools is slightly more flexible than in the madrasa system. The class often starts with a revision of the last lesson. More general questions are allowed. When the teacher does not appear (which often happened during my fieldwork), one

of the boys performs as an ad hoc preacher and gives an edifying speech.

When a teacher comes in, someone shouts “Respect!” as a sign to stand up. At primary level, the acquisition of knowledge is quite passive and geared towards reproduction rather than reflection. The Qur’an class consists of rec- itation only and is perceived by the students as being quite boring; several pupils use this occasion to finish their homework for other subjects. How- ever, at the higher levels I witnessed more interaction between the teacher and pupils.

2. Published texts

a. Madrasa literature

i. jurisprudence from the Shafi’i school of law (fiqh)

Madrasa literature, as it is used in Tanga schools, has changed little over the last century.31

Based on visits to more than 25 madrasas and an

analysis of school curricula, the following list gives an indication of the most commonly used titles which are relevant for the study of Idd el-Hajj rituals.32

Unsurprisingly, the list is dominated by the four well-known classical Shafi’i

clusters with the texts (matn), commentaries (sharh) and super-commentar-

ies (hashiya). Connections between the books are often physically expressed

by publishing two or three books in one volume.

1. al-Ghaya wa al-taqrib, written by Abu Shuja’ al-Isfahani (d. 1197?).Its major commentary is Fath al-qarib al-mujib by Ibn al-Qasim al-Ghazzi, 72 pp.33

The super-commentary on this sharh by Ibrahim al-Bajuri (d.

1860) is often quoted in the Tanga madrasa Shamsiyya.

2. al-Muqaddima al-hadramiyya, written by Abdallah Ba Fadl (1446-1512), 110 pp. Also known as Mukhtasari in Swahili.

3. Minhaj al-talibin, written by Nawawi (d. 1277-78). Goes back to the Muharrar by Rafi’i (d. 1226)34

and Ghazzali (d. 1111). However, these two titles themselves are never mentioned. Rather, references are made to

two other commentaries based on the Minhaj: Tuhfa al-muhtaj, by Ibn

Hajar, is the most popular of the two, followed by Nihaya al-muhtaj,

written by Muhammad al-Ramly (d. 1595), which is well-known and often quoted without title (“al-Ramly says…”).

4. Qurra al-‘ayn, written by Malibari (ca. 1567).Its major commentary is

Fath al-mu’in (written by the 16th century South Indian scholar Zayn ad-Din al Malibari, student of Ibn Hajar) and famous super-commentar- ies are I‘ana al-talibin (Sayyid Bakri, d. 1893) and Tarshih al-mustafidin

(‘Alawi al-Saqqaf, d. 1916).35

The commentaries are more popular than the original.

Surprisingly absent in this list is the Kitab al-irshad cluster (includ-

ing the commentaries by Ibn Hajar al-Haytami and others).36

Although the book is quoted in the Swahili literature, it took me a long time before I could finally buy a copy.37

None of the madrasa teachers mentioned the title to me. Perhaps its different character (it is a collection of hadith rather than a real work on jurisprudence) makes it less suitable as a classroom manual.

The shared characteristic of these Shafi’i ‘families’ is their canonical status, which is demonstrated by many quotations and the fact that no Swahili translations exist. Also typical is that the matn is never used in the

madrasa environment, with an easier commentary being chosen instead. The books are expensive (more than 3,000 Shilling or USD 3) and bookshops usually only have one copy in stock. Not yet a classic, but rapidly gaining

wider acceptance, is the Shafi’i manual Yaqut al-nafis fi madhhab Ibn Idris,

written by al-Sayyid Ahmad b. Umar al Shatiri al ‘Alawi al Husayni al Tarimi. My copy was printed around 1990 but the Dar es Salaam library has a 1948 edition.

A second group of Arabic madrasa literature consists of small text

books produced outside East Africa but often translated into Swahili, and which are cheaper than the above-mentioned canonical works.

1. Risalatu Jami’a, written by Habib Ahmad bin Zayn al Habshi (1069-1145 H.).The author is a Hadrami scholar. Many translations of this work exist, including into English. The Swahili edition by Saidi Musa (1985) is bilin- gual (10 pages Arabic and 15 pages Swahili). The book contains basic material on pillars of Islam: ritual cleansing, salat, fasting, zakat, hajj

and a list of transgressions.

2. Umda al-salik wa ‘uddat al-nasik, written by Shihab al-din Abu’l Abbas Ahmad b. al-Naqib al- Misri b. Lu’lu (1302-1376), 72 pp. (cf. Becker

1968:46). The English translation by Nuh Ha Mim Keller, The Reliance

of the Traveller, was often shown to me and a helpful bookshop owner even copied the chapter “Sacrifices on ‘Eid al-Adha” for me. Its com-

mentary, Anwar al-masalik (Mombasa reprint from the Indian edition

from the Cairo original, 276 pp), composed by Muhammad al-Zuhri al- Ghumrawi, is often used at the higher madrasa levels.

3. Mabadul fiqh, written by Umar Abd al-Jabbar (n.d.). The Arabic text is published in 4 volumes (containing 16, 32, 55 and 64 pages respec- tively) and was compiled by a modern Indonesian author (cf. Van Bruinessen 1990:249). Al-Jabbar is a popular author in Tanzania; his works on the Prophet’s biography (Khulasat nur al-yaqin) are also best- sellers. References to Indonesia found in the original Arabic text are replaced in the Swahili translation by the Zanzibari Majid, Misingi ya kifiqhi (vol II, 35 pp).

4. Safinatu naja, written by Salim b. ‘Abdallah b. Samir (mid 19th century). This small treatise deals only with ritual cleansing, prayer and fasting. The book is often published together with Safinatu salat, on the Islamic ritual prayer (cf. van Bruinessen 1990:248; Becker 1968:47), 31 pp.

5. al-Durar al-bahiya fi ma yalzim al-mukallif min al-`ulum al-shar’ia, written by Abu Bakr b. Muhammad Shata’ al-Shafi’i (n.d.), Printed in Singapore, 48 pp. Swahili translation by Saidi Musa. Basic fiqh book on the five pil- lars.

6. Matn al-zubad, written by Ahmad b. Husayn b. Hassan b. Raslan ar-

Ramli. (1371-1441), 120 pp. The Tanga madrasa Shamsiyya has pub-

lished a Swahili translation (Arabic script) in two volumes: Tadhkiratul talib al hayran fi tafsir al-zubad al sheikh Ahmad bin Raslan (each volume contains 72 pp).

7. Riyad al-Badi’a, written by Muhammad bin Suleiman Hasballah

(1817/1818-1916/1917).38

Printed in Singapore, 55 pp. Also common are the Kenyan pirated editions (originally printed in Kota Baru), sold for 600 Shilling or USD 0.6. Several East African scholars studied with Hasballah, among them the famous Ahmed bin Muhammed Mlomry (1873-1936).39

8. Matn Umda al-Ahkam, written by Abd al-Ghani al-Maqdisi al-Jamma’ili (1146-1203), printed in India, 128 pp, contains all the five pillars from

tahara (purification) to the hajj (pilgrimage) and the final 50 pages deal with social, financial and dietary issues.

A third group of fiqh used in the schools consists of even easier

Arabic textbooks, with complete vocalisation to facilitate reading by non- native speakers. The material is usually offered in the form of questions and

answers, allowing for easy memorisation. This group of madrasa literature

functions as an introduction to the above-mentioned canonical works. The

major producer in this group is the Tanga madrasa Shamsiyya. I mention

here:

1. al-Mukhtasar al-saghir fi ma la budda li kulli muslim… (anonymous, Delhi, 32 pp).

2. Risalatan (two treatises, 13 pp) on basic salat postures.

3. Kifayat al-mubtadi (20 pp) is another basic, handwritten extract. The first printed edition appeared in 2000 (25 pp).

4. Masa’il Muntakhaba 6 volumes, containing 32, 23, 20, 20, 50, 20 pp each).

5. Hidayatul atfal, written by Amin b. ‘aly al-Mazrui (1890-1949; Mombasa, 64 pp. Cf. Lacunza Balda 1989). Perhaps this title is the most impor- tant book in this cluster. The Swahili editions (both in Latin and Arabic scripts) are also sold in Tanga.

It is very likely that references to some of these books would be made in a discussion on the street or in an answer to a particular question. It is also this group of literature that starts to reflect local sensitive issues, often in footnotes.