1.6 Construcción social del ambiente
1.6.3 La complejidad como alternativa a la crisis ambiental
English Common Names
(Narrow-leaved) (purple) coneflower, echinacea, prairie purple coneflower.
Other names applied to Echinacea species:
sampson root, black sampson.
The name Echinacea comes from the Greek echinos, referring to a spiny hedgehog or a sea-urchin, a reference to the spiny floral bracts of the species. The word “echinacea” may be used as a scientific plant name (the genus Echinacea), a com-mon plant name, and the word for drug prepara-tions from the plants. Species of Echinacea are known as “coneflowers” because of the raised, cone-like flower-heads (as in many other members of the Compositae or Asteraceae, what appear to be flowers are actually aggregates of tiny flowers).
Species of two other North American compositae genera, Rudbeckia and Ratibida, are also known as coneflower.
French Common Names
Apparently unavailable (the English word is em-ployed).
Morphology
The native Canadian plants of E. pallida are usually 15 – 50 cm in height. They have stout, more or less bristly-hairy stems and lance-shaped or linear-lanceolate leaves. Attractive flowering heads appear in late summer and autumn, with “petal”
(ray flower) colors varying from whitish rose to pale purple. The phyllaries (subtending bracts) ex-ceed the flowers in length and are spiny. In the fall, brown fruiting heads generally produce abun-dant seeds. The tap root is thick and blackish.
Classification and Geography
Echinacea is a genus of about nine species of perennial herbs, native to open woods and prairies of central and southeastern US, with one species extending into Canada. Native Canadian plants of Echinacea occur in southeastern Saskatchewan and southern Manitoba. We follow the taxonomy of A.
Cronquist in recognizing the Canadian plants as an element of a polymorphic, widespread species, E. pallida (Nutt.) Nutt. (note map). The Canadian plants belong to var. angustifolia (DC.) Cronq., (known as the species E. angustifolia in almost all biological and pharmacological literature). This has
yellow pollen, whereas var. pallida (called E. pal-lida in almost all biological and pharmacological literature), has white pollen, and is not native to Canada. The species is native throughout the prairie region as far south as Texas. Introduced populations have been established in eastern North America in-cluding parts of Ontario. Both varieties are used me-dicinally but var. pallida, known as pale-flowered echinacea, is considered much less desirable com-mercially. Echinacea tenesseensis (Beadle) Small is very closely related to E. pallida, and has some-times been considered to be a component of the latter species. This endangered endemic is found only in a few populations on limestone glades near Nashville, Tennessee (see map). Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench, a species of east-central US, is second only to E. pallida var. angustifolia as a medicinal source of echinacea.
Echinacea products have commonly been adulter-ated, and recently several manufacturers have made efforts to ensure that their product is genuine. Much research that has been conducted on echinacea is open to question because the classification of the group was not understood by the researchers and their identifications of material utilized were incor-rect. There is a need to carry out rigorous chemical, clinical and pharmacological studies with the help of taxonomists.
Ecology
In Canada, E. pallida typically occurs on prai-rie slopes. Like other coneflowers, it grows best in a sunny location, in fertile, well-drained soil.
Medicinal Uses
The root is the predominant part of the plant used medicinally, but flowers and sometimes leaves are also employed. The chewed root causes an unusual, acrid, tingling sensation on the tongue.
Long before echinacea was considered useful for reducing the 2.4 colds per person per year typ-ical of North America, Indians seem to have used echinacea as a remedy for more ailments than any other plant. Although archeological records show that echinacea is known to have been employed by indigenous North Americans at least since the 1600s, European settlers appear to have taken up such use only 2 centuries ago, with the first patent medicine produced about 1870. This was named
Echin
“Meyer’s blood purifier” by the (German) Nebras-kan lay physician H.C.F. Meyer, who created an echinacea mystique by widely publicizing his of-fer to allow a rattlesnake to bite him (which he never permitted) so that he could demonstrate the curative power of his miraculous medicine.
Echinacea today has become a star of the me-dicinal plant industry. Hundreds of scientific arti-cles have been published about it, and many more non-scientific articles have extolled its virtues. As with several other herbal drugs that have become popular, there is some exaggeration concerning its benefits. Curiously, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries there was also a widespread conviction that echinacea was a wonder drug that would cure many illnesses, followed by an interval up to a de-cade ago during which the drug was thought to be ineffective. The present resurgence of interest is very large, so much so that some consider echinacea to be the most consumed herbal product in the US.
Root extracts of the medicinal species of Echina-cea have been said to have cortisone-like antibiotic effects, antiviral properties, insecticidal capability, and a potential for stimulating the immune system.
There is no doubt that echinacea affects white blood cells, apparently beneficially. It has been speculated that echinacea increases the ability of the body to produce white blood cells that destroy bacteria
and viruses. Like ginseng, echinacea is often con-sumed not so much to cure as to prevent illness and promote well-being.
Most scientific studies of echinacea have been carried out in Germany, the Western country which leads the world in phytomedicinal research. More than 200 echinacea pharmaceutical preparations are marketed there, as extracts, salves, and tinctures for use on wounds, herpes sores, canker sores, throat infections, and as a preventative for influenza. In Canada, five products have been registered for E. pallida var. angustifolia, and one for E. purpurea.
There is considerable agreement that echinacea is useful internally for preventing and treating the common cold and associated conditions such as sore throat, as well as externally for treating su-perficial wounds.
Toxicity
Generally, there seem to be few undesirable met-abolic effects of consuming echinacea. Since it is a member of the daisy family, those who are allergic to other members of the family (like ragweed) need to be aware of the possibility of cross sensitivity.
Some have advised that echinacea should not be consumed when pregnant or suffering from diabe-tes. It has been recommended that echinacea not be used with such progressive systemic disorders as multiple sclerosis and HIV/AIDS-related illnesses.
48 Canadian Medicinal Crops
Echinacea pallida
including var. angustifolia E. tennesseensis
Reports of hepatitis associated with echinacea have been noted in The Australian Adverse Drug Reac-tions Advisory Committee August 1993 bulletin.
Chemistry
A wide array of constituents of echinacea may contribute to its medicinal properties. The poly-saccharides and the alkylamides are thought to be the most active ingredients. “Echinacosides” have been identified as active ingredients, but there is disagreement about their significance.
Non-medicinal Uses
Coneflowers are commonly grown in wildflower and perennial gardens, and harvested as cut flow-ers. Echinacea purpurea is an especially popular border plant, and there are numerous ornamental cultivars available. By contrast, there seem to be no cultivars of E. pallida; the so-called horticul-tural cultivar Strigosa appears to be based on the taxonomic variety strigosa of the southern US.
Agricultural and Commercial Aspects In recent years in the US, over 50 tonnes of wild echinacea has been harvested for overseas shipment, at a time when the domestic market has been expanding. Wild E. pallida var. angustifolia has become more difficult to find, and cultivation is becomingly increasingly necessary to supply the demand so that various species or local races will not be exterminated. In Europe, Echinacea is ex-tensively cultivated. There is scattered cultivation in Canada.
Substrate conditions are particularly important to perennial root crops like echinacea. It thrives in well drained loams and sandy loam soils with a pH of 6 to 7, and although wild plants seem adapted to dry soils, in cultivation adequate water should be supplied. Roots are harvested at 3 or 4 years of age. Flowers may also be harvested for sale to pharmacological firms, and seeds are still another saleable commodity. The cultivation of Echinacea appears to offer potential as a diversification crop in Canada, but as with other relatively undevel-oped medicinal crops, caution, planning, and self-education are necessary to make it successful. In some recent years, the prices paid to farmers for growing echinacea have been low.
The wild Canadian populations are scattered, and doubtfully justify harvesting. Furthermore they could easily become endangered. These northern-most populations of the genus are of particular sig-nificance, since they are the ecotypes suited to the Canadian environment, and therefore constitute
germplasm useful for improving future Canadian crops.
Myths, Legends, Tales, Folklore, and Interesting Facts
•
The Nebraska patent medicine purveyor Dr.H.C.F. Meyer, who offered to let himself be bit-ten by a rattlesnake to demonstrate the curative power of his echinacea formulation, has been credited as the source of the phrase “snake-oil salesman.”
•
The Meskwaki tribe of native Americans called Echinacea “the hairs of Grandmother Earth’s head.”•
There are various ways that have been recom-mended to pronounce echinacea (“ek-a-NAY-sha,” “ek-in-EH-(“ek-a-NAY-sha,” “EHH-key-NAY-see-ya,”“e-kin-na-sha”). The famous student of botani-cal Latin, W.T. Stearn, wrote on the subject of how to pronounce names of Latin origin “how they are pronounced really matters little pro-vided they sound pleasant and are understood by all concerned.”
•
Magnus is a cultivar of Echinacea purpurea that was chosen as plant of the year by the Perennial Plant Association. It was selected by Magnus Nilsson near Paarp, Sweden, which happens to be just across the straits from Hamlet’s legend-ary Danish castle at Helsingor.Echinacea pallida (purple coneflower)
Selected References
Awang, D.V.C., and Kindack, D.G. 1991. Herbal medi-cine: Echinacea. Can. Pharm. J. 124: 512–516.
Baskauf, C.J., and Eickmeier, W.G. 1994. Comparative ecophysiology of a rare and widespread species of Echinacea (Asteraceae). Am. J. Bot. 81: 958–964.
Baskauf, C.J., McCauley, D.E., and Eickmeier, W.G.
1994. Genetic analysis of a rare and a widespread species of Echinacea (Asteraceae). Evolution 48:
180–188.
Baskin, J.M., and Baskin, C.C. 1982. Effects of vernal-ization and photoperiod on flowering in Echinacea tennesseensis, an endangered species. J. Tenn. Acad.
Sci. 5(2): 53–56.
Baskin, C.C., Baskin, J.M., and Hoffman, G.R. 1992.
Seed dormancy in the prairie forb Echinacea angusti-folia var. angustiangusti-folia (Asteraceae): after-ripening pat-tern during cold stratification. Int. J. Plant Sci. 153:
239–243.
Baskin, J.M., Snyder, K.M., and Baskin, C.C. 1993. No-menclatural history and taxonomic status of Echin-acea angustifolia, E. pallida, and E. tennesseensis (Asteraceae). Sida Contrib. Bot. 15: 597–604.
Bauer, R. 1996. Echinacea drugs — effects and active ingredients. Z. Arztl. Fortbild (Jena) 90: 111–115.
[In German.]
Bauer, R., and Foster, S. 1989. HPLC analysis of Echinacea simulata and E. paradoxa roots. Planta Med. 55: 637.
Bauer, R., and Foster, S. 1991. Analysis of alkamides and caffeic acid derivatives from Echinacea simulata and Echinacea paradoxa roots. Planta Med. 57: 447–449.
Bauer, R., and Wagner, H. 1987. Comments on the Echinacea problem. Am. Herb. Assoc. Q. 5(3): 4.
Bauer, R., and Wagner, H. 1991. Echinacea species as potential immunostimulatory drugs. Econ. Med. Plant Res. 5: 253-321
Bauer, R., Khan, I.A., and Wagner, H. 1988. TLC and HPLC analysis of E. angustifolia roots. Planta Med.
54: 426–430.
Blumenthal, M. 1993. Echinacea highlighted as a cold and flu remedy. Herbalgram 29: 8–9.
Bomme, U., Hoelzl, J., Hessler, C., and Stahn, T. 1992.
What effect does the cultivar have on active ingredient content and yield of Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench with regard to its pharmaceutical use? Bayer.
Landwirtsch. Jahrb. 69: 149–164. [In German.]
Bomme, U., Hoelzl, J., Hessler, C., and Stahn, T. 1992.
How does variety influence active substance contents and crop yield of Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench with regard to its pharmaceutical use? Bayer. Land-wirtsch. Jahrb. 69: 323–342. [In German.]
Cody, W.J., and Boivin, B. 1973. Purple coneflower, Echinacea purpurea, in Ontario. Can. Field-Nat. 87:
70.
de Vries, B. 1975. Range extension of purple cone-flower in southeastern Saskatchewan. Blue Jay 33:
220–223.
Dorsch, W. 1996. Clinical application of extracts of Echinacea purpurea or Echinacea pallida. Critical evaluation of controlled clinical studies. Z. Arztl.
Fortbild (Jena). 90: 117–122. [In German.]
Drew, M.B., and Clebsch, E.E.C. 1995. Studies on the endangered Echinacea tennesseensis (Asteraceae):
plant community and demographic analysis. Castanea 60: 60–69.
Federal Register. 1979. Determination that Echinacea tennesseensis is an endangered species. 44(110):
32604–5 (June 6).
Feghahat, S.M.J., and Reese, R.N. 1994. Ethylene-, light-, and prechill-enhanced germination of Echin-acea angustifolia seeds. J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 119:
853–858.
Foster, S. 1991. Echinacea: nature′s immune enhancer.
Healing Arts Press, Rochester, VT. 150 pp.
Heinzer, F., Chavanne, M., Meusy, J.P., Maitre, H.P., Giger, E., and Baumann, T.W. 1988. The classification
50 Canadian Medicinal Crops
Echineacea tennesseensis (Tennessee coneflower)
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of therapeutically used species of the genus Echinacea.
Pharm. Acta Helv. 63: 132–136. [In German.]
Hemmerly, T.E. 1986. Life cycle strategy of the highly endemic cedar glade species: Echinacea tennesse-ensis. ASB Bull. 33(4): 193–199.
Hobbs, C. 1994. Echinacea: a literature review. Herbal-gram 30: 33–49.
Hobbs, C. 1994. Echinacea: the immune herb. Botanica Press, Capitola, CA. 83 pp.
Houghton, P. 1994. Herbal products. 3. Echinacea.
Pharm. J. 253: 342–343.
Kindscher, K. 1989. Ethnobotany of purple coneflower (Echinacea angustifolia, Asteraceae). Econ. Bot. 43:
498–507.
Leuszler, H.K., Tepedino, V.J., and Alston, D.G. 1996.
Reproductive biology of purple coneflower in south-western North Dakota. Prairie Nat. 28(2): 91–102.
McGregor, R.L. 1968. The taxonomy of the genus Echinacea (Compositae). Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull.
48: 113-142.
Mengs, U., Clare, C.B., and Poiley, J.A. 1991. Toxicity of Echinacea purpurea. Acute, subacute and genotoxicity studies. Arzneimittelforschung 41: 1076–1081.
Oliver, A., Price, J., Li, T.S.C., and Gunner, A. 1995.
Echinacea, purple coneflower. Specialty Crops Info-sheet. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, BC. 8 pp.
Parmenter, G.A., and Littlejohn, R.P. 1997. Planting density effects on root yield of purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench). N.Z. J. Crop Hort. Sci. 25: 169–175.
Parmenter, G.A., Burton, L.C., and Littlejohn, R.P. 1996.
Chilling requirement of commercial Echinacea seed.
N.Z. J. Crop Hort. Sci. 24: 109–114.
Perry, N.B., Van Klink, J.W., Burgess, E.J., and Parm-enter, G.A. 1997. Alkamide levels in Echinacea purpurea: A rapid analytical method revealing dif-ferences among roots, rhizomes, stems, leaves and flowers. Planta Med. 63: 58–62.
Quarterman, E, and Hemmerly, T.E. 1971. Rediscovery of Echinacea tennesseensis (Beadle) Small. Rhodora
73: 304–305.
Samfield, D.M., Zajicek, J.M., and Cobb, B.G. 1990.
Germination of Coreopsis lanceolata and Echinacea purpurea seeds following priming and storage.
Hortscience 25: 1605–1606.
Scaglione, F., and Lund, B. 1995. Efficacy in the treatment of the common cold of a preparation containing an Echinacea extract. Int. J. Immunother. 11(4): 163–166.
Schulthess, B.H., Giger, E., and Baumann, T.W. 1991.
Echinacea: anatomy, phytochemical pattern, and ger-mination of the achene. Planta Med. 57: 384–388.
Smith-Jochum, C., and Albrecht, M.L. 1988. Trans-planting or seeding in raised beds aids field estab-lishment of some Echinacea species. Hortscience 23(6 Part 1): 1004–1005.
Smith-Jochum, C.C., and Davis, L.C. 1991. Variation in the hexane extracted oils of three Echinacea spp.
Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci. 94: 12–21.
Snyder, K.M., Baskin, J.M., and Baskin, C.C. 1994. Com-parative ecology of the narrow endemic Echinacea tennesseensis and two geographically widespread con-geners: relative competitive ability and growth charac-teristics. Internat. J. Plant Sci. 155: 57–65.
Somers, P. 1983. Recovery plan for a cedar glade en-demic, the Tennessee coneflower, Echinacea tennes-seensis (Asteraceae). Nat. Areas J. 3(4): 56–58.
Viles, A.L., and Reese, R.N. 1996. Allelopathic poten-tial of Echinacea angustifolia DC. Environ. Exp.
Bot. 36: 39–43.
Wagner, H., Stuppner, H., Schäfer, W., and Zenk, M.
1988. Immunologically active polysaccharides of Echinacea purpurea cell cultures. Phytochemistry 27: 119–126.
Wartidiningsih, N., and Geneve, R.L. 1994. Seed source and quality influence germination in purple cone-flower [Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench.]. Hortsci-ence 29: 1443–1444.
Wartidiningsih, N., Geneve, R.L., and Kester, S.T. 1994.
Osmotic priming or chilling stratification improves seed germination of purple coneflower. Hortscience 29: 1445–1448.
World Wide Web Links
(Warning. The quality of information on the internet varies from excellent to erroneous and highly misleading. The links below were chosen because they were the most informative sites located at the time of our internet search. Since medici-nal plants are the subject, information on medicimedici-nal usage is often given. Such information may be flawed, and in any event should not be substituted for professional medical guidance.)
Crop & Food Research - Echinacea: the purple coneflowers. Description of research into the commercial production of echinacea and echinacea products in New Zealand, by Crop & Food Research scientists:
http://www.crop.cri.nz/psp/broadshe/echinace.htm
Echinacea pallida var. angustifolia, Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, Southern Crop Protection & Food Research Centre:
http://res.agr.ca/lond/pmrc/study/newcrops/echinacea.html Echinacea - A new crop with potential [for Oklahoma]?:
http://www.kerrcenter.com/nwsltr/news23-2.htm
Echinacea pallidavar. angustifolia 51
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A modern herbal by M. Grieve:
http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/e/echina01.html Medical attributes of Echinacea spp. coneflowers:
http://wilkes1.wilkes.edu/~kklemow/Echinacea.html The development of Echinacea as a new crop for Alberta:
http://www.aari.ab.ca/projectdb/matchgrant/97-98/97-0750.html HealthWorld - Echinacea by Hoffman:
http://www.healthy.net/library/books/hoffman/MateriaMedica/echinacea.htm Medicinal Herbs Online - Echinacea:
http://www.egregore.com/herb/echinacea.html
Top herbal products encountered in drug information requests (Part 1) by J.L. Muller and K.A. Clauson [requires registration (free) with Medscape; one of the herbals discussed is Echinacea]:
http://www.medscape.com/SCP/DBT/1998/v10.n05/d3287.mull/d3287.mull-01.html Dr. James Downey’s herbal research & healing - Echinacea [has considerable information]:
http://www.herbsinfo.com/pages/echin.htm
52 Canadian Medicinal Crops
54 Canadian Medicinal Crops
Epilobium angustifolium (fireweed).
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