La tortura como excepcionalidad

Clandinin and Connelly examined the origins, uses, and meanings of personal knowledge constructs used in studies of teachers‟ beliefs and discovered a “bewildering array of terms” (1987, p. 487). These included teachers‟ teaching criteria, principles of practice, personal construct/theories/ epistemologies, beliefs, perspectives, teachers‟ conceptions, personal knowledge, and practical knowledge. They coined their own term, personal

practical knowledge and defined it as that which is “embodied and

reconstructed out of the narrative of a teacher‟s life” (ibid, p. 490). The literature includes references to „initial expectations‟ (Aylor, 2003; Frymier & Houser, 2000; Beynon, 1985; Good & Brophy, 1984), providing another term that may reflect similar intentions.

For Braithwaite (1999), a belief was defined as a statement of a relationship among things accepted as being true. Pajares (1992) recognised confusion existed in the distinction between beliefs and knowledge. Clearly, it was difficult to pinpoint where knowledge ended and belief began, and Pajares made the suggestion that most constructs were simply different words meaning the same thing. While supporting the view that “beliefs are the best indicators of the decisions individuals make” and that “few would argue that the beliefs teachers hold influence their perceptions and judgements, which

in turn, affect their behaviour in the classroom” (1992, p. 307), he reinforced Clandinin and Connelly‟s (2003) view that educational psychology does not always use terms precisely and consistently. Discussion of beliefs “travel in disguise and often under alias – attitudes, values, judgements, axioms, opinions, ideology, perceptions, conceptions, conceptual systems, preconceptions, dispositions, implicit theories, explicit theories, personal theories, internal mental processes, action strategies, rules of practice, practical principles, perspectives, repertories of understanding, and social strategy, to name but a few that can be found in the literature” (Pajares, 1992, p. 309).

It was during the 1980s that researchers such as Clark and Peterson (1986) recognised teachers‟ theories and beliefs were a rich store of knowledge that affected their planning and their interactive thoughts and decisions. Similar views were expressed by Richards who remarked that “a primary source for teachers‟ classroom practices is teachers‟ belief systems, the information, attitudes, values, theories, and assumptions about teaching and learning which teachers build up over time and bring with them to the classroom” (1994, p. 1).

Dancy explains our basic beliefs are those “which concern the nature of our sensory states, our own immediate experience” (1985, p. 53). Audi adds “seeing is believing” (1998, p. 3) and indicates perceptions thus created are formed spontaneously. However, he acknowledges “not every perceptual belief is justified” (ibid, p. 25) and that “retained beliefs about the past can be sheer fabrications unconnected with memory” (p. 55). For example, Audi specified the problem with beliefs based on observing phenomena; “its

reliability varies so much with conditions of observation that it would be wrong to say that it is a reliable belief-producing process” (ibid. p. 225).

Braithwaite (1999) presents evidence that teaching is a complex and

cognitively and attitudinally demanding task and that teachers‟ beliefs affect implementation processes. However, despite teachers constructing their classroom environments on the basis of their beliefs, he notes “specific data on how this is done are somewhat scarce” (1999, p. 1). Further, he suggests “It is unlikely that one single element determines the ways in which teachers teach. Rather, there appears to be process wherein all of the beliefs, settings and guiding philosophies contribute to the decision-making process in an interactive manner“(ibid, p. 17). When Clark and Peterson observed that “teachers‟ attribution are obviously central to an understanding of the mental life of teachers” (1986 p. 285), this promoted the process for belief formation as complex and context dependent.

Moseley et al (1999) found there were consistent relationships between teachers‟ beliefs about effective teaching and their practice. However, they noted that “teachers are individuals with different sets of values, ideas, personal styles and pedagogical repertoires” (1999, pp. 46-7) suggesting despite some similarities, that differences in belief exist. Henderson added that “it is unlikely teachers‟ beliefs are ever purely cognitive or behavioural or transmissive or facilitative” and suggested, “teachers‟ views are more like mosaics of different beliefs about the various components of cognition” (2003, p. 10). In addition, the mental bounds of teaching provided by the curricula, which teachers must follow, are part of the mix. “Teachers themselves develop curriculum as it is carried out in practice. In this way,

teachers integrate their own values … teachers‟ values are mainly subconscious” (Kansanen, 1997, p.1).

3.5 Summary of chapter

Chapter Three has indicated that vagaries with the use of various terms in the literature include an overlapping use of words such as experience,

knowledge and beliefs. In addition, discussions about teachers do not always clarify whether findings relate to the teaching of adults as distinct from

children or adolescents. This creates challenges for careful consideration of the literature in the context of Research Question 1.

While specific aspects of practitioners‟ nature and attributes have been studied, no research could be found to indicate that a specific set of

characteristics distinguish people operating in the role of teacher from people in other roles. In addition, research about whether specific characteristics of practitioners can be connected to particular teaching motivations is

inadequate. While research has categorised types of knowledge that

practitioners have and use, no connection is made in the literature to specific teaching moments. Similarly, there is an absence of information about practitioners in terms of their experience and knowledge associated with their own learning, in the context of a specific moment in teaching. Research implies that direct connections exist between the experiences, knowledge gained and beliefs that are developed in the classroom and subsequent teaching activity, without providing clear descriptions.

While teachers bring a complex of information and approaches to teaching from their teaching and non-teaching lives, the exact nature of this is not clearly defined in the literature. Nor does the literature include information about what an individual practitioner brings when s/he meets a new class group. Nevertheless, on the basis of the literature, practitioners can be loosely characterised as people who are trained to various degrees to teach, who have various degrees of familiarity with facing new groups of learners and commencing to teach, and who believe their presence, knowledge and actions will facilitate the learning of students. These findings represent broad reflections of „general knowledge‟. More specific information about

practitioners‟ experience, knowledge and personal paradigms is absent.

The next chapter presents the literature associated with the second research question: How do practitioners proceed in the moment of first encounter with a new group of adult learners, as the class starts?

4.0 Literature supporting Research Question 2

4.1 Introduction

Chapter Four focuses on literature relevant to Research Question 2: How do practitioners proceed in the moment of first encounter with a new group of adult learners, as the class starts?

This chapter sets out to support the presentation and discussion of findings in Chapter Eight. It reports on the literature associated with the individual activities that practitioners may undertake. The first sections introduce the literature associated with initial encounters and first impressions. The later sections focus on physical and non-physical activities, stages of activities, and the timing of activities. The chapter concludes with a summary.

“We can understand (and perhaps even predict) teachers‟ ways of acting if we find out their ways of thinking, making decisions, solving problems” (Marton, 1994, p. 29). Literature was found with a diversity of information about a myriad of activities in which practitioners might engage during the moment of first encounter with a new group of learners. Lists of these references and brief introductions on relevant topics are provided, as a means of introducing diverse strands of research that may support the answering of the research question. Despite the plethora of activities and aspects that may impact on practitioners, Gage observed that “no science can prescribe successfully all the twists and turns as teaching unfolds and teachers respond with judgement, sudden insight, sensitivity, and agility to promote learning” (1978, p. 15). Research cited below indicates that

practitioners are likely to be undertaking both visible and invisible activities, and that their physical mannerisms and movements mask a complexity of mental processes. Any of these activities may be voluntary or involuntary, conscious, subconscious or non-conscious.