Lei de Bases e a Organização do Sistema Educativo

ACTUAL ENQUADRAMENTO LEGAL DO SISTEMA EDUCATIVO PORTUGUÊS DO ENSINO BÁSICO E DA

1. Lei de Bases e a Organização do Sistema Educativo

K R Jankowsky, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA

Karl Friedrich Christian Brugmann (see Figure 1) was born on March 16, 1849 in Wiesbaden. He graduated from high school in his home town in 1867, studied

philology for one year in Jena, then decided to move on to Leipzig, where he selected as his major subject com-parative philology, with Georg Curtius (see Curtius, Georg (1820–1885)) becoming his principal teacher.

His doctoral thesis of 1871, entitled De Graecae lin-guae productione suppletoria, was followed in 1877 by his Habilitationsschrift, Zur Geschichte der Nominal-suffixe -as-, -jas- und -vas- (published in Zeitschrift fu¨r

Bru¨cke, Ernst (1819–1891)

P C Sutcliffe, Colgate University, Hamilton, NY, USA

Ernst Wilhelm Ritter von Bru¨cke (b. June 6, 1819, d.

January 7, 1892), not to be confused with his grandson and biographer, Ernst Theodor Bru¨cke, was a physiol-ogist who taught for 46 years, 41 of them as Professor of Physiology at the University of Vienna (1849–1890).

Bru¨cke was classically educated, which gave him a thorough foundation in Greek and Latin and a broad humanistic interest in languages and learning. Then he studied medicine, primarily in Berlin with physiologist Johannes Mu¨ller, who encouraged him to apply his physiological expertise to developing a natural system of speech sounds with which all the world’s languages could be described (Jankowsky, 1999: 247). It is his groundbreaking works in this field, most espe-cially Grundzu¨ge der Physiologie und Systematik der Sprachlaute fu¨r Linguisten und Taubstummenlehrer (1856), for which he is remembered in linguistic, and particularly phonetic, history, although he had 140 publications in all.

In his first work on speech physiology, Untersu-chungen u¨ber die Lautbildung und das natu¨rliche System der Sprachlaute (1849), Bru¨cke laid the foun-dation for Grundzu¨ge, painstakingly describing vari-ous pronunciations of all the vowels and consonants and arranging them in a system according to genetic criteria, introducing terms such as alveolar and dental still in use today. Apparently, Bru¨cke was unaware of Ellis’s Essentials of phonetics (1848) as he wrote it (see Ellis, Alexander John (ne´ Sharpe) (1814–

1890)), so he essentially developed a natural system of speech sounds with no help from predecessors, except for some observations by Kempelen (see Kempelen, Wolfgang von (1734–1804)). In the 7 years between Untersuchungen and Grundzu¨ge, Bru¨cke deepened his observation of languages with help from colleagues in Vienna, including Miklosich

(see Miklosˇicˇ, Franc (1813–1891)) for Slavic and Anton Hassan for Arabic languages. He also realized a further practical application for his now ‘fine-tuned’ system: as a tool for teachers of the hearing-impaired (Jankowsky, 1999: 246).

Although Bru¨cke’s Grundzu¨ge was superseded by Sievers’s Grundzu¨ge der Lautphysiologie in 1876 (see Sievers, Eduard (1850–1932)), Bru¨cke’s work provided the physiological description linguists had lacked and laid the foundation for this later work. He was extremely influential on Sievers and his genera-tion, and also on Sigmund Freud. Scherer (see Scherer, Wilhelm (1841–1886)) and Sweet (see Sweet, Henry (1845–1912)) are among those who used and praised his work.

See also: Ellis, Alexander John (ne´ Sharpe) (1814–1890);

Freud, Sigmund (1856–1939); Kempelen, Wolfgang von (1734–1804); Miklosˇicˇ, Franc (1813–1891); Scherer, Wil-helm (1841–1886); Sievers, Eduard (1850–1932); Sweet, Henry (1845–1912).

Bibliography

Bru¨cke E W (1849). ‘Untersuchungen u¨ber die Lautbildung and das Natu¨rliche System der Sprachlaute.’ Sitzungsber-ichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften Wien, Math.-Naturwiss. Klasse. 2, 181–208.

Bru¨cke E W (1856). Grundzu¨ge der Physiologie und Sys-tematik der Sprachlaute fu¨r Linguisten und Taubstum-menlehrer. Vienna: C. Gerold & Sohn (2nd rev. edn., 1876).

Bru¨cke E T (1928). Ernst Bru¨cke. Vienna: Julius Springer.

Jankowsky K (1999). ‘The works of Ernst Wilhelm Bru¨cke (1819–1892) and Johann N Czermak (1828–1873):

Landmarks in the history of phonetics.’ In Cram D et al.

(eds.) History of linguistics 1996, vol. II: From classical to contemporary linguistics. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

241–255.

Brugmann, Karl (1849–1919)

K R Jankowsky, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA

Karl Friedrich Christian Brugmann (seeFigure 1) was born on March 16, 1849 in Wiesbaden. He graduated from high school in his home town in 1867, studied

vergleichende Sprachforschung 24: 1–99), qualifying him as a university teacher. Before that he had obtained his Staatsexamen in 1872 and taught high school, for one year in Wiesbaden, then at the Nicolai-Schule in Leipzig. In 1877 he started his university career, first lecturing on Sanskrit and comparative philology in Leipzig, where he was appointed associate professor (Extra-Ordinarius) in 1882. Two years later he went to Freiburg as full professor (Ordinarius) and stayed there for three years, only to return to Leipzig for good in 1887 to occupy the newly established chair for Indo-European philology. He died in Leipzig on June 29, 1919.

Brugmann was the most productive of the Neo-grammarians and undoubtedly also the one who com-manded the greatest influence on language students who streamed to Leipzig from all over the world.

Apart from the enormous impact through the sub-stance of his writings, his unparalleled success was to a large extent also due to his unique personal style and courage. As a young man of 27, he broke with his mentor Curtius, who could not approve of Brugmann’s impatient zest for exploring even less conventional avenues if he thought that it furthered the advancement of his science. And from then on he embarked on a course of quiet but determined con-frontation. This frame of mind was the basis for the second feature that aided his climb to unprecedented prominence. Within a short time after he entered the teaching profession, Brugmann managed to establish himself as an arbiter of what should be acceptable as

solid linguistic achievement and what would have to be discarded as insignificant.

When he sat in judgment, his criteria were derived from solid research that he and his Neogrammarian comrades-in-arms kept supplying in abundance.

Even before Brugmann had started teaching at the university level, his first two major studies, written in 1876, brought him recognition and fame that continued to grow rapidly with every work he pro-duced. Of the approximately 400 titles in his list of publications, two above all others were instru-mental in solidifying his reputation as the unchal-lenged leader in the field, and even today those works remain achievements that need to be con-sulted. The first is the Griechische Grammatik of 1885, a model treatment of all components of gram-mar from a comparative point of view; the second, his Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen (vols. 1, 2, 6). Following Franz Bopp (see Bopp, Franz (1791–1867)) and Au-gust Schleicher (see Schleicher, AuAu-gust (1821–1868)), he was the third scholar to attempt a comprehensive documentation of what comparative linguistics had accomplished at his particular time. To achieve this monumental task, he had to restrict himself to phonol-ogy and morpholphonol-ogy of the eight principal Indo-Euro-pean languages, leaving it to Berthold Delbru¨ck (see Delbru¨ck, Berthold (1842–1922)) to deal with syntax (vols 3–5).

As was characteristic of all Neogrammarian schol-ars, Brugmann was truly fascinated by discovering and securing as many relevant linguistic facts as he possibly could. But he, as did most of his Neogram-marian friends, went far beyond the mere amassing of facts in that he successfully attempted to arrive at the formulation of the basic principles that govern those facts and place them within a coherent system.

See also:Bopp, Franz (1791–1867); Curtius, Georg (1820–

1885); Delbru¨ck, Berthold (1842–1922); Neogrammarians;

Schleicher, August (1821–1868).

Bibliography

Brugmann K (1876). Nasalis sonans in der indogerma-nischen Grundsprache. In Curtius G (ed.) Studien zur griechischen und lateinischen Grammatik 9. Leipzig: S.

Hirzel. 285–338.

Brugmann K (1876). Zur Geschichte der stammabstu-fenden Deklinationen. In Curtius G (ed.) Studien zur griechischen und lateinischen Grammatik 9. Leipzig: S.

Hirzel. 361–406.

Brugmann K (1885). Zum heutigen Stand der Sprachwis-senschaft. Strasbourg: Triibner.

Figure 1 Photograph of Karl Brugmann fromldg. JahrbuchIV (1918). Retrieved from http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/personal/

galeria/brugmann.htm.

Brugmann K (1885). Griechische Grammatik (Lautlehre, Flexionslehre und Syntax). In Mu¨ller I (ed.) Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft 2. 1–126.

Brugmann K (1886–1893). Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen, vol. 1: Ein-leitung und Lautlehre, vol. 2: Wortbildungslehre, vols 3–5:

(1893–1900). Vergleichende Syntax der indogermanischen Sprachen, Parts 1–3. 6. Indices (Wort-, Sach- und Auto-renindex). Strasbourg: Tru¨bner.

Brugmann K (1894). Die Ausdru¨cke fu¨r den Begriff der Totalita¨t in den indogermanischen Sprachen, eine semasiologisch-etymologische Untersuchung. Leipzig:

Edelmann.

Brugmann K (1902–1904). Kurze vergleichende Gramma-tik der indogermanischen Sprachen. Auf Grund des fu¨nf-ba¨ndigen Grundrisses der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen von Karl Brugmann und Berthold Delbru¨ck, verfasst von Karl Brugmann (3 vols).

Strasbourg: Tru¨bner.

Brugmann K & Osthoff H (1878–1910). Morphologische Untersuchungen auf dem Gebiete der indogermanischen Sprachen (6 vols). Leipzig: S. Hirzel.

Brugmann K & Streitberg W (eds.) (1891–). Indogerma-nische Forschungen. Zeitschrift far indogermaIndogerma-nische Sprach- und Altertumskunde. Strasbourg: Tru¨bner.

Fo¨rster M (1919). ‘Worte der Erinnerung an Karl Brug-mann.’ Indogermanisches Jahrbuch [fu¨r 1918] 6, vii–x.

Jankowsky K R (1972). The Neogrammarians: a re-evalua-tion of their place in the development of linguistic sci-ence. The Hague: Mouton.

Sommer F (1955). ‘Karl Friedrich Christian Brugmann’. In Neue Deutsche Biographie, vol. 2. Berlin: Duncker and Humblot. 667.

Streitberg W (1919). ‘Karl Brugmanns Schriften, 1871–

1909.’ Indogermanische Forschungen 26, 425–440.

Streitberg W (1919). ‘Karl Brugmann.’ Indogermanisches Jahrbuch 7, 143–148. (Repr. in: In Sebeok T A (ed.) Portraits of linguists, vol. 1. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press).

Streitberg W (1919). ‘Karl Brugmanns Schriften, 1909–

1919.’ Indogermanisches Jahrbuch 7, 148–152.

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