LESIONES PRODUCIDAS EN EL TRAUMATISMO TORÁCICO

The( following( sub=sections( describe( the( process( by( which( the( integration( of( nature( into( the( urban( environment( became( mainstream( in( Chicago,( Illinois,( largely( building( on( the( personal( drive( of( the( former( mayor( Richard( Daley.( The( prominent( use( of( nature( in( various( forms( throughout( Chicago( has( helped( to( change( the( image( of( Chicago,( and( is( used( to( strategically( improve( the( urban( aesthetic( and( contribute( to( the( revitalisation( of( urban( areas.( Biophilic( elements( used( in( Chicago( range( from( landscaping( around( buildings( and( along( roads,( to( green( roofs( such( as( the( famous( Chicago( City( Hall( Green( Roof,( to( showcase( parks( including( the( Millennium(Park(which(is(in(fact(one(of(the(world’s(largest(green(roofs.(The(Chicago(case(study( provides( particular( insight( into( the( critical( role( strong( government( leadership( can( play( in( the( mainstreaming(process,(as(well(as(innovative(financing(mechanisms(for(biophilic(elements,(and( processes(of(building(support(and(evidence(for(the(use(of(biophilic(elements(for(which(there(is( little(prior(experience.(

6.3.1 National(case(study(context(

In( the( United( States,( revisions( to( the( Clean( Water( Act( in( 1977( brought( stormwater( under( the( National( Pollutant( Discharge( Elimination( System( (NPDES)( program.( Further( amendments( in( 1987( included( provisions( that( specifically( address( stormwater( discharges( and( created( a( basis( for( the( current( system( of( required( permits.( This( change( in( legislation( identified( municipal( stormwater(sewers(as(“point(source”(discharges,(such(that(these(were(subject(to(a(higher(level(of( control.( This( legislation( required( municipalities( and( industries( that( typically( have( large( stormwater(discharges(to(develop(and(implement(stormwater(prevention(plans,(and(to(comply( with( other( requirements( to( reduce( their( stormwater( discharges( (United( States( Environmental( Protection(Agency,(2013;(Odefey,(2013).(In(Chicago,(as(for(many(cities(in(the(US,(the(substantial( cost( of( retrofitting( stormwater( sewers( under( the( city( catalysed( considerations( of( green( infrastructure( solutions( to( increase( onsite( management( to( reduce( grey( infrastructure( development(requirements.(

The( Federal( EPA( Urban( Heat( Island( investigation( program( (1998)( was( also( critical,( as( this( provided( funding( for( the( Chicago( City( Hall( green( roof( installation( and( monitoring,( which( provided(local(demonstration(of(green(roofs(as(an(UHI(mitigation(tool,(as(well(as(for(stormwater( management,(energy(demand(reduction,(and(enhancing(the(urban(aesthetic((Green(Roofs(North( America,( n.d.;( US( EPA,( 2002).( Other( than( in( these( areas( discussed( above,( environmental( and(

climate( change( policies( at( a( national( level,( have( not( been( key( drivers( for( Chicago’s( urban( greening(initiatives(nor(the(city’s(Climate(Change(Action(Plan.((

Urban(planning(in(the(United(States(is(primarily(directed(by(state(and(local(governments,(with( the( federal( government( having( no( direct( influence( (Knaap,( Talen,( Olshansky,( &( Forrest,( 2000;( Schmidt(&(Buehler,(2007).(The(federal(government(indirectly(has(significant(influence,(however,( through( policy( areas( including( housing( development,( taxation,( transportation( and( environmental(protection((Knaap,(et(al.,(2000).(There(is(much(diversity(between(the(states(in(the( US( regarding( urban( planning,( including( the( degree( of( involvement( of( the( state,( whether( regional/metropolitan( planning( occurs,( whether( plans( needs( to( be( vertically( and( horizontally( consistent,(as(well(as(in(the(scope(and(requirements(for(plans((Schmidt(&(Buehler,(2007).(

6.3.2 Case(study(overview(

Chicago(adopted(the(motto(of(Urbs(in(Horto((City(in(a(Garden)(in(1837.(City(planning(from(the( late(19th_{(Century(left(a(legacy(of(a(park(system(and(forest(reserves((City(of(Chicago,(2009).(In(the(}

1909( Plan-of-Chicago,-it( was( noted( that( “human( nature( demands( such( simple( and( wholesome( pleasures(as(comes(from(roaming(the(woods,(for(rowing(and(canoeing,(and(for(sports(and(games( that( require( large( areas”( (cited( in:( City( of( Chicago,( 2009,( p2).( Despite( these( efforts,( however,( during(the(20th_{(Century,(Chicago(became(better(known(for(being(America’s(industrial(heartland,(}

with(popular(imagery(of(the(city(including(its(skyscrapers,(pig(farming,(big=business(and(crime( rates((Conaway,(2010).((

Richard( M.( Daley( became( the( Mayor( of( Chicago( in( 1989,( and( sought( to( purposefully( shift( the( vision(of(Chicago(to(a(green(city(with(a(high(quality(of(life,(with(the(ambitious(goal(of(being(the( “Greenest(City(in(America”.(Daley(launched(a(tree(planting(campaign(the(same(year(that(resulted( in( over( 500,000( trees( being( planted( by( 2008( through( public=private( partnerships( (City( of( Chicago,( 2008a,( 2008b),( and( two( years( later( the( Landscape( Ordinance( was( introduced,( which( required(developers(to(integrate(landscaping(into(developments(to(improve(the(urban(aesthetic( (City( of( Chicago,( n.d.=f).( Daley( continued( to( champion( the( use( of( urban( nature,( using( the( considerable(power(afforded(to(Mayors(in(Chicago((Gibbs,(2005;(Young,(2010)(to(allocate(budget( for( urban( green,( to( direct( the( consideration( of( urban( nature( across( various( government( departments(and(to(install(individuals(within(those(departments(who(understood(Daley’s(vision( for( Chicago( and( had( the( skills( to( implement( necessary( reforms( (Daley,( 2001;( Johnston,( 2006;( Ramsey,(2008).(

In( the( late( 1990s,( Daley( was( travelling( in( Germany( and( saw( green( roofs,( and( realised( the( opportunity(these(presented(to(green(the(densest(parts(of(the(city((Johnston,(2006).(In(1998,(the(

opportunity( arose( to( test( and( demonstrate( green( roofs( as( part( of( a( Federal( Government( investigation(into(ways(of(mitigating(the(UHI(effect.(A(green(roof(was(developed(on(the(City(Hall,( completed( in( 2001.( In( addition( to( measuring( ambient( temperature( reductions( from( the( green( roof,(data(was(collected(on(building(energy(demand(reductions,(stormwater(runoff(reductions,( and(the(survival(rates(of(various(types(of(vegetation((American(Society(of(Landscape(Architects,( 2002;(US(EPA,(2002).(The(findings(from(this(pilot(roof(subsequently(informed(the(development( of( various( initiatives( to( encourage( green( roofs,( including( a( green( roof( grants( program( that( offered(financial(assistance(to(buildings(retrofitting(green(roofs(into(existing(buildings((Johnston( &( Coffee,( 2008);( density( bonuses( and( fast=track( development( approvals( to( developments( that( install(a(green(roof((amongst(other(sustainable(features,(through(the(Green(Building(Program)( (City(of(Chicago,(n.d.=g);(and(mandatory(requirements(under(the(sustainable(development(policy( for(new(municipal(buildings,(or(any(buildings(receiving(city(funding(or(zoning(assistance(to(have( a(green(roof((City(of(Chicago,(2007).(Green(roofs(are(also(able(to(be(included(in(developments(as( a(measure(to(help(meet(stormwater(runoff(requirements(set(by(the(Stormwater(Ordinance((City( of(Chicago,(2012a).(This(provides(an(apt(example(of(the(general(hierarchy(of(initiatives(to(direct( the( use( of( urban( nature( in( Chicago,( including( to( firstly( lead( by( example,( to( offer( incentives,( to( educate( and( raise( awareness( and( finally( to( mandate( and( regulate( (Durnbaugh,( 2012;( Wiedel,( 2012).((

In(2004,(Millennium(Park(was(opened,(creating(one(of(Chicago’s(most(significant(urban(greening( endeavours( of( recent( times.( The( 24.5( acre( landscaped( park( is( built( over( two( underground( parking( garages( and( active( commuter( rail( lines,( making( it( Chicago’s,( and( one( of( the( world’s,( biggest(green(roof.(Millennium(Park(incorporates(facilities(for(art,(culture,(music(and(recreation,( and( is( located( in( the( heart( of( downtown( Chicago( (O’Dell,( 2012).( The( Park( was( financed( at( virtually( no( cost( to( the( taxpayer,( due( to( contributions( from( philanthropists( and( the( use( of( tax( increment(financing(and(sale(of(government(bonds(and((Jerke,(Mikulenka,(Conti,(Nabavi,(&(Budz,( 2011;( Uhlir,( 2012),( however( ongoing( maintenance( costs( are( substantial( (Uhlir,( 2012).( Private( sector( financing( allowed( for( accoutrements( that( would( otherwise( be( inappropriate,( which( in( turn( provided( greater( financial( returns( through( value( adding( to( the( development( (Groos( &( Dages,( 2008).( Recent( estimates( suggest( Millennium( Park( adds( tourism( revenue( that( in( 2010( alone(equated(to(US$1.29(billion((Jerke,(et(al.,(2011).(

Whilst( the( rationale( for( urban( greening( appears( to( have( initially( been( to( beautify( the( city( and( increase(access(to(open(space((City(of(Chicago,(1998;(Schneider,(2005),(subsequent(performance( and(cost(data(demonstrated(the(potential(for(urban(nature(to(assist(in(stormwater(management,( UHI(effect(mitigation,(climate(change(adaptation(and(economic(development(of(the(city((Chicago( Loop( Alliance,( 2011;( City( of( Chicago,( 2012b,( n.d.=b;( Jerke,( et( al.,( 2011;( United( States(