It is true that we belong to many social groups and at a given or specific time not all memberships have the same meaning and formative behaviour. The salience of the situation is contextual and plays an important role in the cognitive foreground of that social identity (Cameron, 2004). Rosenberg (1979) suggested that identity has both cognitive and emotional components (Tajfel 1978; Tajfel and Turner, 1978) and emotions play an important role in social identity theory. Specific emotions such as regret or happiness are derived from memberships that reflect the psychological ties of self with the group. Many researchers (e.g. Tajfel, 1978; Brown et al., 1986;
Hinkle et al., 1989; Ellemers et al., 1999 and Jackson, 2002) highlight the cognitive and emotional aspects of identification and agree that social identity is multidimensional. According to Hinkle et al. (1989) identification has three basic components
1. Emotional and affective aspects of group membership
2. Affectively relevant factors that related to with individual needs and group dynamics
3. Cognitions such as perception and feeling of belongingness
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He argued that no valid evidence has been found to separate the affective and cognitive facets of social identity. On the other hand Ellemers et al. (1999) demonstrated three factors of social identity: self-esteem, self-categorization and commitment. Jackson (2002) reported three factors of social identity, one cognitive element labelled as self-categorization and two emotional facets to evaluate the group and the perception of togetherness and solidarity which is explained by Hinkle et al. (1989) as a sense of belongingness. Consequently, there is theoretical, empirical and logical evidence of social identity’s multi-dimensionality (Ellemers et al., 1999; Hinkle et al., 1989; Jackson, 2000).
Different studies stated that social identity emerges from self-reports of participation (see Deaux, 1992a). Deaux et al. (1995) asserted that identities result from relationships which are more expressive, desirable, personal and central in self-definition than any other identities. However, some identities are differentiated on a personal basis (i.e. relationship identities) and some on a social basis (e.g. political and vocational identities); they are peripheral in nature. Usually the distinction is made on the basis of identities’ external orientation, enactment of social relationship with others and memberships. Behaviours and outcomes usually differ according to the individualistic and collective basis of identity. Collective identity is associated with group events and values, while individual identity centres on personal values.
People’s self-esteem to protect their identity is dependent on identity type. So all identities are different from one another and generate different consequences. Social identity theory and empirical analysis explains variation in identity category and conceptualise a cognitive–affective pathway in the present research.
The work of Ellemer et al. (1999) provided more details about social identity, such as the affective component of identification: a major determinant of group
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membership. Emotional attachment brings more affective commitment to the organization. Accordingly awareness of membership in an organization is a cognitive component of social identity and involvement is a more emotional component, therefore both needed to be considered. According to Lazarus (1991) appraisal is a cognitive activity and “it consists of a continuing evaluation of the significance of what is happening for one’s personal well-being” (ibid: p. 144).
Therefore appraisal concerns are relevant to a person’s well-being. On the other hand, Frijda et al. (1989) supported the cognitive approach to emotions as there is a strong relationship between cognitive and emotional structure. Further, Frijda (1986) stated that emotions cannot be defined independently for any kind of activity, as emotions are elicited by a person’s cognitive appraisal in a specific situation.
Emotions are raised by cognitive appraisal of a person’s environment or situation;
i.e., whether an event is appraised as beneficial or harmful could generate different emotions (Lazarus, 1991; Arnold, 1960). So cognitions may be a necessary cause but may not sufficient cause for emotion generation, even though it is an accepted argument that cognition can cause emotions. This argument helps to identify the antecedents of the emotions. Lazarus (1991) stated that situation appraisal is derived from both internal (beliefs and values) and external (responses from other people) conditions. Cognitive appraisals are directed to action tendencies and experience.
Cognitive appraisal is “the subjective appraisal of the stimuli in the context of the individual’s needs and coping potential that determines the emotional responses”
(Nyer, 1997: p. 297). There is a relationship among cognition, emotion and behaviour. So there is a need to explore the effect of cognitive on behaviour and the effect of emotions on behaviour. Furthermore the relationship between attitude and behaviour needs more explanation. The study of consequences of cognition and
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emotion is useful for practical implications, as different emotions bring different action tendencies (Nyer, 1997).
Smith and Reynolds (2009) worked on the cognitive and affective pathway and how it measures the behavioural intentions towards the services. The literature contains both cognitive and affective aspects that explain how volunteers have been evaluated by other researchers. It tries to provide a clear picture of the relationship between cognitive and affective pathway and longevity turnover intentions. The duality of emotions and cognitive factors in explaining fear and guilt appeals originally stems from Leventhal’s (1970) parallel-response model. Indeed, Leventhal (1970) was the first to propose that emotional and cognitive pathways operate independently to mediate behaviour. The expectancy-valence model (Rogers, 1983) suggested that cognitive factors operate on the premise that recommended change in behaviour will be enacted. This research followed the same approach as Russell (1980) did in his ‘model of affect’ in that affect mediated the relationship among stimuli, the cognitive process and response behaviour. Similarly, Oliver and Westbrook (1993) demonstrated that emotional processes act as mediators among cognitive evaluations (e.g. perceived product performance and overall satisfaction).
Consequently the present study is focused on cognitive and affective elements as antecedents of enhancing volunteerism, so the cognitive–affective model is adopted from the available models in the literature to explore the relationships among the construct that will explain volunteers’ attitude formation. However this cognitive–
affective pathway is conceptualised as moral identity and moral emotions on the basis of social identity theory.
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2.6 Conclusion
It is costly to recruit and train volunteers and high turnover adversely affects the organization stability and causes wastage of resources which could otherwise be used for social welfare. In high contact service organizations (as Barraza (2011) stated), it is worse as clients lose their connection and trust with volunteers.
Therefore, social identity theory was introduced to find an appropriate solution to understanding volunteers’ behaviour. Using this theory, the present research will provide some basic knowledge to prolong volunteer’s experiences. The next chapter will provide the background and details of the constructs used in the present research for understanding the volunteering context.
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3 Chapter 3-Moral Emotions and Moral Identity:
Conceptualization, Major Influences and Outcomes
3.1 Overview
The chapter seeks to conceptualize volunteer attitude development using moral identity and moral emotions as a base. Identity formation and emotional responses are conceptualized as central correlates for cognitive and affective components of attitude formation. Furthermore, it is conceptualized that this influence will operate through empathy, gratitude and identity salience as the most important mediators to volunteers’ participation and longevity turnover intentions. However internal marketing is also conceptualized within the present research framework to highlight the importance and relevance of communication design aspects in the developmental pathway from identity and emotions to participation and intentions. This framework is the first such model to integrate a social identity theory perspective to understand pro-social attitude formation within a charity context.