The research focus refers to the unit of analysis, which is defined as the focal point where the variables, phenomena and the research problem convene. The research focus determines data collection and analysis (Yin, 1994). Not all aspects of water project management can be over elaborate within this single study. The research, therefore, limits itself to establishing factors that contribute to the successful maintenance of hand-pumps. Table 15 below illustrates the variables for initial analysis that were established during the literature review, particularly in the few research papers on rural water projects and lessons learnt (Gutierrez, 2007; Harvey, 2004; Kleemeier, 2000; Njoh, 2002; Sonuga et al., 2002). The main factors identified in literature review could be summarised as monetary and material factors, technical factors and organisational factors. Literatures showed that these factors are diverse however are similar to what the PMBoK (2008) identifies as external environmental factors of a project. Burkey (1993) categorise them as development factors in rural projects.
Table 15 section gives a summary of some relevant insights from literature about end- user roles in drinking water projects, which formed variables of analysis.
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Table 15: Hand-pump Maintenance and Variables of Analysis Insight from literature Description
Monetary and Material Factors End-users resources may develop means to sustain (Harvey, 2007; Ashbolt & Barnes, 2010; Jones, 2011; Prokopy, 2004)
Technical Factors Presence of knowledge and skill at the village level may facilitate hand-pump operations (Dvir, 2005;Vajja&White, 2008)
Organisational Factors Drinking water had challenges, which may call for active local committees with the ability to locally organise end-users and resources for pump- maintenance (Gutierrez,2007;van Koppen & Rojas, 2012; Jaglin & Repussard, 2011)
Data Source: Chisenga 2014
End-user contributions in hand-pump maintenance have received mixed reactions. Although there is evidence that maintained hand-pumps have benefits but data is inconclusive about the extent and type of resources end-users engage in hand-pump maintenance. Furthermore, the reviews on the work of Prokopy (2007), Khang & Moe (2008), and Barnes & Ashbolt (2010) are justified by evidence as results emerged from reviews, which were mainly descriptive based on macro-level country data. The advantages of such use of data are that it is structural and scientifically proven with objective empirical evidence. However, a realist philosopher would disagree with data generalization in a drinking-water project because the context in which hand-pumps operate, is consistently changing making generalised data to be null and void. Furthermore, we get the impression that donors, NGOs and governments' efforts in initiating end-user roles for their drinking-water projects are fragmented, uncoordinated and unpredicted hence a critical review using a case study would be ideal to get a detailed picture on issues of the main research question as follows:
‘What factors facilitate or hinder effective end-user participation in the successful operation and maintenance of drinking-water projects in rural areas of Malawi?’
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a) How do the end-user in-put or contributions influence the outcome of the hand-pump maintenance?
b) What should end-users do to better understand their roles in hand-pump- maintenance?
c) How do end-users perceive hand-pump- maintenance success factors? and d) What are the key challenges affecting the end-user ability to maintain
hand-pumps?
The insights from literature about issues to be in place to promote hand-pump maintenance is further analysed in a form of a conceptual framework as detailed in Figure 7 on the following page 89. The above Figure 7 presents the issues to be put in place or possible models to prevail to achieve successful hand-pump management. Figure 7 also shows that end user roles have some potential to contribute to the operations and maintenance of hand-pumps. However, empowerment, broader poverty alleviation and rural development are ultimate goals. The figure further shows that the aim of the hand-pump is to supply safe drinking water free of faecal contamination so as to reduce diseases. However, this may not be done without provision of financial grants from NGOs, who are project sponsors and funders for capital equipment of hand-pumps technology. There is also need for end user contributions of sand, stone and query for building the hand-pumps other than being passive recipients. Individual end users are unable to dig the well or provide the materials on their own right hence it means some collective management, and institutional support is a necessary part of the machinery for community action (Smith, Bough & Thomson, 2001). Collective management of common-pool resources through local political structures has become a new thinking in drinking water projects. Research on common-pool resources shows that these resources can be sustained by its end- users and their local structures; hence the study focus is shaded circle 6 and 7. The notion of common property of managing resources has been successful in forestry management (Yirenkyl- Boateng, 2001).
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Figure 7: Conceptual Framework & Variables of Analysis (Chisenga 2014)
1. Clean water (Hand Pumps Technology)
5. End user roles
3. Support of Local Leaders / Water Committees 6.Maintained & Operational Hand Pumps
2. Financial Aid by NGOs & Labour, Bricks, Sand, Stones
by EndUsers 4. Decentralised System by Local Govern./Donor /NGO 8. Poverty Reduced. 7. Empowerment & Reduced Donor Dependency 9. Rural Development
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However, this line of thinking (research on common-pool resources) has not been without criticism as there are hand-pumps, which are not repaired. The reasons for hand-pump failure varies one of which is inactive or lack of local government structures to support operations. Local government Institutional structures like District Assembly (DA), Area Development Committees, and Village Development Committees (VDC) would not have power without local government/NGO decentralisation policies (Haque, 2004). In summary, the figure shows that a solution to successful management of hand-pumps affiliates to rural development in a form of reducing poverty in rural areas.
The developed conceptual framework emerges from literature (Prokopy, 2005, 2009; Harvey, 2004, 2008; Harvey & Reed, 2002; Njoh, 2002; Crow & Shallow, 2012; Briscoe & Charkraborty, 1981; Breetz & Urgessa, 2012) and the hand-pump factors are diverse. However, the factors are similar to what Burkey (1993) broadly categorises as development factors in rural projects namely: social, economic, personal and political factors. In business or profit oriented projects such factors are viewed as environmental factors affecting strategic performance of a project (PMI, 2008; Johnson, Scholes, & Whittington, 2008).
Concepts from the above models will be applied by developing or formulating a framework that will guide data collection and testing of the results. However, since the study realism approach is skewed towards qualitative research, hence sustainable development model extracted from literature review will also be used to explain the findings of hand-pump maintenance in selected areas of Bvumbwe and Nkhoma drinking water project areas, Malawi
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2. 9 Conclusion of the Literature Review Chapter
To summarise, the chapter has explored circumstances surrounding the rural drinking- water projects' management and particularly why exploring and understanding end- users’ roles in hand-pump maintenance form the main objective of the study. The section has also outlined the stakeholder and inclusive rural development models, which form the basis for the conceptual framework from which research questions are developed including the study unit of analysis. In a nut shell, this chapter has outlined the research problem that needs to be addressed to resolve maintenance of drinking- water problems in Malawi. The last part of the section has elaborated the geographical, political, economic background of Malawi and how the situation directly or indirectly aligns hand-pump maintenance in Malawi. The section also included a presentation of the case study context. The next chapter details the philosophical and methodological approach to accomplish the research objective.
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CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter explains the basis for the methodology adopted in the thesis to answer the research questions. The chapter also provides a discussion of the key features of the methodology used to answer the research questions in order to meet the research aims and objectives. The research concepts that are relevant for this research are analysed in order to provide reasons that justify the selection of a realist philosophy, qualitative research, case study research approach, sampling and data collection techniques. The aim of the chapter is therefore, to demonstrate the basis upon which the relevant research decisions were arrived at in order to address validity and reliability issues in a realist qualitative research.
Firstly, the methodology is aligned with the literature review (the problem, research question and aims) and then the flow of work is highlighted in a diagrammatic format to show the relationship of the methodology on other research phases. The background of philosophical choice is given to highlight the suitability of overall philosophical choice. Alternative methods are also discussed and shown why they have not been the best to answer the research question; and why the chosen methods engage with sorting problems of hand-pump maintenance. By employing secondary data (literature review) and primary data collection (using documents, observation, interviews and focus groups), to establish factors facilitating or inhibiting hand-pump maintenance, the research question is explored and answered with valid data triangulated from different sources.
3.2 The Research Question, Aims and Objectives
The author was inspired to undertake the research because there is an investment of hand-pump technology to improve provision of safe drinking water for rural stakeholder end-users in Sub-Saharan Africa, which include Malawi. The author had come to a conclusion that maintenance of the hand-pumps posed a challenge for continued supply of safe drinking water for end-users (WHO/UNICEF, 2004). In