Tipo y características del injerto utilizado

Choice of appropriate illustrative or representative cases is a complex issue in case study research (Yin, 2009). Representative cases in case study researchers are those isolated from the population of hand-pumps in Malawi to study the phenomenon. Yin (2009) and Cresswell (2007) proposed the criteria of choosing cases or hand-pumps to depend upon the one which mostly represents the phenomenon but may also consider others, which may show different perspectives about the problem (repaired or abandoned hand-pumps) or phenomenon. Yin (2009) proposes the choice of cases to be bounded by:

 Exploratory and explanatory type of study

 Multisite vs. single case site

 Multiple sources of information

The exploratory case study has been chosen because the variables or criteria for assessing end-user perceptions for underlying hand-pump maintenance factors in rural drinking-water is not available (Cresswell, 2007: 242) hence the use of Stage C, Convergence Interviews.

Exploratory study is an emerging design study, where the context depends on enquiry and data collection, and analysis is largely inductive (Patton, 1990). Exploratory case study is appropriate because we seek to have an in-depth understanding of the perspectives or views of the rural hand-pump maintenance (phenomenon) by project end-users in different hand-pump locations and compare with each other (embedded cases). However, the second phase is an explanatory purpose of the case study. This is built from a realist perspective and was carried out as data was gathered from known variables using semi-structured interviews. The aim was to establish causal

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relationships of variables to explain why hand-pumps are not maintained (Saunders et al., 2009).

Yin (2009) also proposes either multisite or single case site study. The researcher used several cases, other than a particular case or holistic case to determine how hand- pump maintenance is perceived in different projects. A multiple case study is defined as one, which involves the study of more than one case, while a single v single case is defined as a case study where it represents a critical case or an extreme unique case examination – to provide an opportunity to observe and analyse the phenomenon that few have considered before (Yin, 2009). There are no rare cases of drinking-water projects hence this type does not engage in this study. The holistic case v embedded case dimension, on the other hand, refers to the study of units of analysis that is, different hand-pumps in each NGO area of Nkhoma and Bvumbwe (Yin, 2004). This was adopted in this research as the research focussed on Nkhoma and Bvumbwe drinking-water project areas as the whole, including logical subunits in terms of how end-users relate in each pump-pump and also the whole system in support of maintenance practices. The rationale for using two NGO- drinking-water project areas helped to establish whether water operations and hand-pump maintenance system (which is the case) occurred in other areas as well. The use of multiple and embedded cases led to a consequence of the need to generalise from these findings (theoretical generalisation).

3. 5. 2 Choice for Case Study Representative Sampling

Sampling is about taking a smaller chunk of the larger universe (Miles & Huberman, 1984).). In this study, sampling is about which people to interview and which hand- pump events and social processes relating to maintenance (Miles & Huberman, 1984) to be explored. Positivists differ from a realist because they focus on random sampling while the realist tends to be skewed towards purpose driven sampling. In addition, sampling was also driven by the conceptual framework and the research question. The chosen hand-pumps were from a large pool of over hundreds in each district. Therefore, the working and non-working hand-pumps were samples. The study was investigating the process of managing hand-pump maintenance, so as to make sense of the social phenomena.

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Samples were also tied to issues of generalizability (Miles & Huberman, 1984). To promote generalizability, multiple sites were more appealing than a single hand-pump site. Multiple sites were encouraged because they can make claims about a large population of hand-pumps, settings, maintenance events, processes than a single site. So nine hand-pump sites were chosen from two different Traditional Authorities of the two districts which are in different regions of the country. There are 24 districts in Malawi, divided into Traditional Authorities (TAs) and wards (sub-TAs or group village heads). A TA is presided over by the chief. Each TA comprises of villages, the smallest administrative units presided over by the village or group village headman (NSO, 2000). Each TA may have hundreds of hand–pumps depending on investment by the government, churches or NGOs. Selection of Lilongwe and Thyolo were systematically chosen because they had NGOs implemented and engaged in hand- pump projects. Hence it followed that in each district where NGOs who implemented water projects, were chosen namely, TA Bvumbwe in Thyolo District and TA Mazengela or (Nkhoma area) in Lilongwe District. In other words, when it came to sampling the district and TA where to conduct the study, systematic sampling was used (Saunders et al, 2009).

There was also the selection of systematic selection of sub-settings, which were villages, which had hand-pumps in the TAs. Sub-selection of villages was systematic based on whether villages in the TA had operational or non-operational hand-pumps as the interest of the study events surrounding each of these. Five random villages were chosen in Nkhoma of which one village had a non-operational hand-pump. In Bvumbwe 4, villages were randomly chosen of which 1 had a non-operational hand- pump. While the researcher chose the districts and the TAs, choice of the villages and the 9 pumps was guided by the local extension workers and/or the chiefs or gate keepers. As the research had to concentrate on those who were familiar with the water projects so the gate keepers used snow-ball sampling. In this, the respondents sampled and interviewed passed the researcher to another (Yin, 2009). Respondents included those responsible to repair at different levels, including end-users, water committees, local development committee members, village chiefs, local government workers and local NGO workers.

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It may not have been possible to observe all the hand-pumps so selection of samples to base analysis and conclusions from data was done. Observing 9 pumps as a sample was much less time-consuming, and as a result it was likely to collect more detailed and accurate date (Yin, 2009). Though the 9 pumps in a survey would be regarded erroneous by positivists because maintenance activities observed sampled and observed are unrepresentative of the general population of the hand-pumps, villages, and maintenance events with which the researcher is concerned about (Robinson, 2011). In other words, positivists would not legitimately generalise from the 9 hand- pumps as a sample (Saunders, et al, 2009). Positivists view is a flaw in this case study because researchers can also select a representative sample of events within the case to make generalisation to the relevant population of hand-pumps or establish general patterns in of hand-pump maintenance (Yin, 2009). This was done by random or systematic sampling, which involves selecting a random or systematic sampling of hand-pumps as in the Figure 10 below.

Figure 10: Sampling Parameters: Settings, Actors and Events (Chisenga, 2014)

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Choices of actors alternatively called respondents or interviewees were based on whether they:

4 hand-pump installed villages of Gute, Bulaki, Mphenzu, and Kapsyepsye

Kapsyepsye and Mphenzu Lilongwe District, Central Region of Malawi

(World Vision Project Area)

T.A. Bvumbwe area T.A. Mazengela -Nkhoma area

Thyolo District, Southern Region of Malawi (Concern Universal Project Area)

5 hand-pump installed villages of Khuwi, Mavule, Chadza, Kachepa and Kamjeda

Events: End-user activities in hand-pump maintenance

Actors: 12 Convergence Interviewees,

37 Individual Case Interviewees and 2 Focus Groups with 10 members each

120 1. Used the hand-pump

2. Had knowledge about hand-pump developments

3. Were village representatives with roles on the hand- pump 4. Were committees which had a role in hand-pumps and/or 5. Were Local hand-pump repairers.

End-users were therefore: a) any water user who were either men/women or school children b) those involved from a technical point as of local extension workers (NGO or government community workers) at ward/councillor levels- who had a concern for the hand-pumps in the local area they were working. Details of the number of interviewees are presented in Table 18 below.

Table 18 Numbers of Interviews-Sample Size No. of Interviews with End-users in Each of the 2 Study Areas

Number of Interviews Key end-users: in each of 9 hand-pumps - using

CIs to generate themes

12 ICI : 5 in each of 7 hand-pumps

4 NGO community workers (NGO or government) using ICI

35 4 2 Focus groups in each NGO area with 10 end- users in each group

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Total 71