Limitaciones de las terapias CAR-T frente a CD19: efectos secundarios

Adjectives are listed in the dictionary under their masculine singular form. Because the masculine singular ending is “zero” (-Ø), the masculine singular form is seen as equivalent to the stem of the adjective (for more on zero endings, see [161]). A single-syllable word always has a falling accent; when endings other than “zero” are added, this accent often shifts to a rising one.

For more on accent in adjectives, see [166b].

masculine neuter feminine

loš loše loša bad

crn cr̀no cr̀na black

plav plàvo plàva blue vèlik vèliko vèlika big

lijep lijèpo lijèpa beautiful, nice

E lep / J lijep

16b. “Fleeting -

-” in adjectives; voicing assimilation

If the stem of an adjective ends in a sequence of consonants, this sequence is broken up in the masculine singular form by the addition of the vowel a. This vowel disappears in all other forms of the adjective: it bears for this reason the name “fleeting -a-”.

Most of the time, no other changes take place in the adjective stem: this is illustrated by the five adjectives in the left-hand column below. Sometimes, however, other changes take place, according to a process called voicing assimilation. If two consonants occur adjacent to each other, the pronunciation of the first can be adjusted in the direction of the second, and this pronunciation difference is reflected in the spelling, as illustrated by the five adjectives in the right-hand col-umn. These changes are regular and predictable: for more on voicing assimilation and a full list of possible changes, see [167e], and for more on the relationships between sound and spelling, see [167j]). Sometimes a falling accent in the masculine singular form (with fleeting -a-) may shift to a rising accent in other forms (those without fleeting -a-); for more detail, see [166b].

masc. neut. fem. masc. neut. fem.

dobar dòbro dòbra good nizak nìsko nìska low, short tùžan tùžno tùžna sad tèžak tèško tèška hard, heavy kràtak kràtko kràtka short sladak slàtko slàtka sweet dugàčak dugàčko dugàčka long gibak gìpko gìpka flexible òdličan òdlično òdlična excellent uzak ùsko ùska narrow

16c. Adjectives in -

The masculine singular form of most adjectives ends in a consonant. Several adjectives, however, have a masculine singular form ending in -o; this o is replaced by -l in all other forms of

the adjective. Phrased differently, if an adjective stem ending in -l is followed by the zero ending (-Ø), then this final -l is replaced by -o (for more, see [167d]). If the root vowel of such an adjec-tive is one with ekavian and ijekavian variants, the ijekavian forms sometimes follow one pattern and sometimes another. The final -l does not always shift to -o before the zero ending. In some adjectives (such as bijel) it never does, and it others (such as cijel) it has both shifted and non-shifted forms. If it does shift to -o, then the regular ijekavian sequence -ije- is replaced by -i-.

The examples below illustrate these shifts. The feminine singular form stands for what hap-pens in all other forms. Note that the first three items in the left-hand chart also have fleeting -a-.

masculine feminine masculine feminine

topao tòpla warm beo bèla white

okrùgao okrùgla round bijel bijèla

zao zla evil ceo cèla whole, entire

dèbeo debèla fat, thick cio, cijel cijèla

E beo / J bijel; E bela / J bijela; E ceo / J cio [cijel]; E cela / J cijela

17 Short and long forms of adjectives

Most adjectives have both short and long forms (although some have only short forms and some have only long forms). Examples of adjectives in [16] are all short forms. The contrast be-tween short and long is illustrated below by the singular forms of the adjectives crn “black”, crven “red”, dobar “good”, and mlad “young”.

masculine neuter feminine masculine neuter feminine

short crn cr̀no cr̀na cr̀ven crvèno crvèna

long crni crno crna cr̀veni cr̀veno cr̀vena

short dobar dòbro dòbra mlad mlàdo mlàda

long dobri dobro dobra mladi mlado mlada

In the written language, the distinction between short and long forms is seen only in the masculine singular: the short form has the zero ending, and the long form has the ending -i. By definition, therefore, only the short form can contain a fleeting -a-. In neuter and feminine adjec-tives, short and long forms are distinguished only in speech. The vowels in the endings of the short forms are short, and those of the long forms are long. In addition, the accent of the short-form stem vowel may shift from rising to falling in the long short-form, or (more rarely), may shift to a rising accent on the preceding syllable. Speakers of Bosnian regularly distinguish long and short forms in this way, but only some speakers of Serbian do. In Croatian, the distinction is sporadic at best (and is nearly lost). For more on length distinctions throughout the BCS area, see [165d].

17a. “Indefinite” vs. “definite”

In terms of meaning, the distinction short vs. long in adjectives is usually referred to as in-definite vs. in-definite. This is because in a number of instances the difference between short and long forms corresponds roughly to that between the English indefinite and definite articles, re-spectively. Thus, the adjective in the BCS phrase crn kaput would correspond to English A black coat while that in BCS crni kaput would correspond to English THE black coat. In other words, speakers use indefinite adjectives to provide “new” information (to introduce an idea for the first time), while they use definite adjectives to identify something that is already known (or “de-fined”), after which they go on to say something else new about it. For example:

indefinite Rade, je li to nov kàput? Rade, is that a new coat?

Da. On je nov. Yes. It’s new.

definite Taj novi kàput je moj. That new coat is mine.

Gde je moj novi kàput? Where is my new coat?

B,C,S je li / S,B da li je; E gde / J gdje

17b. “Short vs. long” and “indefinite vs. definite”

Unfortunately, the correspondence between English articles and BCS adjective endings works in only a few instances. To complicate matters further, the BCS distinction between short and long adjectives is gradually being lost. For adjectives with both short and long forms, all one can say with certainty is that the short forms (those with presumed indefinite meaning) are used frequently in predicative position (as in Pas je crn), and that the long forms (those with presumed definite meaning, as in Taj crni pas je moj) are used in most other instances. The dictionary form is the masculine singular short form.

In general terms, it is advisable for learners to keep the concepts short vs. long separate from indefinite vs. definite – not only because the English / BCS correspondence is such an im-perfect match, but also because there are a number of adjectives which have only short forms or only long forms. Most grammarians confuse the issue by calling these adjectives “only indefinite”

or “only definite”. This is both incorrect and misleading. For instance, adjectives such as engleski

“English”, srpski “Serbian”, hrvatski “Croatian”, američki “American”, and the like, have only long forms, yet they can be used in both definite and indefinite contexts. There are also adjectives which have only short forms, such as the pronominal adjectives ovaj and moj; yet the meaning conveyed by these pronominal adjectives is clearly one of definiteness. In addition, the adjective mali “small” also exists only in the long form. Some speakers use this single long form in both meanings while others prefer to use a different adjective in the indefinite meaning – one which also means small and which does have both long and short forms (malen / maleni).

18 Cases of nouns, introduction

English has two different ways to express relations between nouns in a sentence: through word order, and by the use of prepositional phrases. BCS uses prepositions as well, and in much the same manner as in English. But the primary means of expressing relations within a BCS sen-tence is with case endings. Nouns indicate by their endings not only their gender (review [5]) and number (see [32a]), but also their case. Gender (masculine, feminine or neuter) is an inherent property of a noun, and number (singular or plural) depends upon the real-world characteristics being referred to. Case, however, is determined by the function of a noun within the sentence.

The following English paragraph contains seven instances of the noun car. In the BCS ver-sion of this passage, each of these seven would be in a different case, with different endings added to the noun stem. The numbers in the text identify which case it would be in each instance.

John has a new car (4) now. His car (1) is the center of his life. He goes everywhere he can by car (6). He often checks the tires of the car (2), and sometimes he just sits in his car (7) and talks to his car (3). “Oh, car (5)!”

he says. “What did I do before you came into my life?”

Each of the seven BCS cases has a separate form in the singular, and six of the seven have a sepa-rate form in the plural. Here are the names of these seven cases, together with two sets of abbre-viations. One is frequently used to refer to the general case meaning, and the other to the case form that expresses that meaning.

Case name Abbreviations

(meaning) (form)

BCS English singular plural

1 nominativ Nominative Nom. Nsg. Npl.

2 genitiv Genitive Gen. Gsg. Gpl.

3 dativ Dative Dat. Dsg. Dpl.

4 akuzativ Accusative Acc. Asg. Apl.

5 vokativ Vocative Voc. Vsg. Vpl.

6 instrumental Instrumental Instr. Isg. Ipl.

7 lokativ Locative Loc. Lsg. Lpl.

(DLsg.)* (DLIpl.)*

* combined forms: Dative-Locative singular

Dative-Locative-Instrumental plural

From the above it would appear that every noun has fourteen different forms. Fortunately, there are fewer, as endings are shared within different noun classes in numerous instances. For instance, dative and locative singular share the same form (discussed in [66a]), abbreviated DLsg. Additionally, dative, locative and instrumental plural share the same form (discussed in [86]), abbreviated DLIpl. Most grammars still retain the idea of seven separate case meanings, however. To aid learning, case endings are presented gradually throughout this and the subse-quent six chapters. The full set of case endings which a noun takes is called a declension.

There are three declensions in BCS. Masculine and neuter nouns (other than masculine nouns in -a) follow the same basic declension, with certain internal variations. Nouns ending in -a (both feminine and masculine) follow another declension. The third declension (discussed in [31]) is restricted to feminine nouns with a zero ending. For complete declensions of all three types of nouns, see [89].

19 The vocative case

Strictly speaking, the vocative (Voc.) is not a case, since it does not express a grammatical meaning such as subject, object or the like. Additionally, its use is not obligatory with all nouns.

The meaning of the vocative is to indicate that a person (or more rarely, a thing) is being ad-dressed in conversation. It is also used to get someone’s attention. The vocative is most fre-quently used with personal names. Masculine names ending in a consonant add -e, and certain feminine names ending in -a replace this by the ending -o. The accent is almost always falling, on the first syllable. For more on the vocative, see [88, 155b].

vocative Mehmede, šta radiš? Mehmed, what are you doing?

Zdravo, Tomislave! Kàko je? Hi, Tomislav! How are things?

Nado, što je òvo? Nada, what’s this?

– Maro! – Molim? “Mara!” “Yes?”

S, B šta / C što

20 The nominative case

The nominative case (Nom.) expresses the subject of the sentence. It is also used in

occur after the verb značiti “to mean” and certain other linking verbs. When a noun is in predica-tive position, it is almost always the case that another noun (also in the nominapredica-tive case) is the subject. All adjective and noun forms seen till now have been in the nominative case, singular number. For review, here are examples of usage; more discussion of the nominative case can be found in [155a]. To illustrate clearly the distinction between nouns as subject and nouns as predi-cates, the same nouns are used in both sets of examples.

Noun as subject

masculine Moj muž se zòve Radovan. My husband is called Radovan.

neuter Njègovo ime je Vladimir. His name is Vladimir.

feminine Majka dànas nè radi. Mother isn’t working today.

Òva tajna je naša. This secret is ours.

Noun as predicate

masculine Radovan je moj muž. Radovan is my husband.

neuter Vladimir je njègovo dète. Vladimir is his child.

feminine “Mama” znàči “majka”. “Mom” means “mother”.

Naša idèja je velika tajna. Our idea is a big secret.

E dete / J dijete

21 The accusative case

The accusative case (Acc.) expresses several meanings, among which is the idea direct ob-ject (see [22, 156a]). It is also used after a number of prepositions (for a full survey of the uses of the accusative, see [156]). In this case (and only this case) masculine nouns are divided into two separate groups. One, called animate, includes nouns which refer to humans and animals. The other, called inanimate, includes all other masculine nouns.