Theories function as possible explanations for a particular phenomenon, which in this study is the phenomenon of crime. Theories must adhere to scientific testing in order to bring truth and comprehension. Criminological theories attempt to explain why some people commit crime and the reason for certain crime patterns (Van der Westhuizen, 2011: 123). Tibbetts and Hemmens (2010: 3) denote a theory as a set of concepts bonded together by a series of statements to offer clarification on why an event or a phenomenon occurs. Theories may also shed light on why certain people are more prone to victimisation than others. Thus, it is important to understand the theories pertaining to cyber stalking as a means to contextualise the criminal activity.
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In the study at hand, the researcher has identified two theories which can be applicable to the phenomenon of cyber stalking. They include the lifestyle exposure theory as well as the routines activities theory and will be discussed respectively while incorporating the application of the theories to cyber stalking. Both theories fall under the Classical School framework which assumes that offenders are rational and able to make decisions (Tibbetts & Hemmens, 2010: 103).
2.7.1 Lifestyle exposure theory
The lifestyle exposure theory suggests that the likelihood of victimisation is dependent on lifestyle. This proposes that any change in the habitual activities of an individual or group, be it potential victims or wrongdoers, is enough to increase or decrease exposure to risk as well as present opportunities for victimisation (Davis, 2005: 36). The theory’s foundation rests on the notion that individuals exercise their different lifestyles by means of adhering to their personal daily routine activities. It implies that lifestyle and victimisation rates are related to individuals’ demographic traits such as age, gender and race. It also stipulates that younger and single individuals are more prone to victimisation as they spend more time away from home. Siegel (2004: 92) adds that the involvement of an individual with an ongoing criminal career opens doors for victimisation. Reyns (2010: 37) sums up the lifestyle exposure theory by highlighting that the degree of exposure to dangerous situations and opportunities are dependent on the activities that comprise an individual’s lifestyle.
The theory plays a significant role in light of cyber stalking. The theory’s foundation rests on lifestyle, so too does cyber stalking. One cannot be a victim or perpetrator of cyber stalking if there is an absence of an online lifestyle. Only when an individual makes use of cyber technologies and takes part in cyber activities is he or she at risk to victimisation or perpetration of cyber stalking. The lifestyle of engaging in the online realm requires some routine in daily activities as it could be needed for work purposes or be a part of one’s social habits. Research indicates that younger individuals are more prone to cyber victimisation as they are more familiar with cyber space (Basson et al
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2011). By performing an interactive role in a cyber environment, as part of a daily lifestyle routine, individuals make themselves vulnerable to dangerous situations. This is in no way placing blame on the victims but rather identifying possible vulnerability and risk.
In accordance with Davis (2005: 36) the lifestyle exposure theory permits the predictability of victimisation or potential victimisation when lifestyle is taken into account. In other words, patterns, routines and daily schedules are exploited to the benefit of the perpetrator. In this way, not only can high risk individuals of cyber stalking be identified and targeted by cyber stalkers but also by protective agents concerned by the matter at hand.
2.7.2 Routine activity theory
The routine activity theory is based on the observations by Cohen and Felson pertaining crime to a product of the recurrent, routine activities and structuring of everyday life (SAGE dictionary of Criminology, 2006: 365). The theory suggests that victimisation, much like the lifestyle exposure theory, is associated to the habitual activities that individuals engage in on a daily basis. These recurrent themes that take place, open doors to possible victimisation. With reference to cyber stalking, individuals are at risk to victimisation when they are regularly exposed to cyber technologies such as computers, Internet, mobile phones, social networks and anonymous chat cites. This is because cyber stalking can only be committed with the involvement of cyber technology. When individuals engage in such activity, without the necessary precautions, they are made vulnerable to cyber stalking.
In its original conception, the theory was designed to explain the volume and distribution of violent crimes or that of theft – cases in which both the victim and offender are physically present at the scene of the crime (Siegel, 2004: 92; Tibbetts & Hemmens, 2010: 103; Davis, 2005: 39). The researcher is of the opinion that the routine activity theory should not be limited to that of contact crimes as it is also applicable to cyber
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stalking. There need not be a mutual or official crime scene, a location in which a suspected criminal offence has occurred (Gilbert, 2007: 79), to be present for cyber stalking to be adapted to the theory. This is illustrated by applying cyber stalking to the following theoretical framework.
The theoretical construction suggests that the presence of three factors that combine in time and place create a high probability for crime and victimisation (Tibbetts & Hemmens, 2010: 103). Davis (2005: 40) adds that the occurrence of these components does not guarantee that a crime will be committed but rather enhance the likelihood that it may occur. Below, Davis (2005: 40) clarifies the three factors while the researcher demonstrates how it is interrelated to cyber stalking.
Motivated offender
Cohen and Felson (SAGE dictionary of Criminology, 2006) do not elaborate much on what constitutes a motivated offender; however other theorists shed some light on this matter. A motivated offender is considered to be any person who has a reason to commit a crime. Be it logical or not, the offender’s motive is personally judicious and should be acted on. In cyber stalking, perpetrators are motivated by many diverse reasons such as rejection, obsession, revenge or power (Mullen et al 2009: 154). These motivations compel the offender to engage in online stalking.
Suitable target
Four elements determine the aptness of a target: value, physical visibility, accessibility and inertia. In terms of Cohen and Felson’s theory (SAGE dictionary of Criminology, 2006), the value of a target lies in its financial and symbolic nature. The value enhances the desirability of it. Although there are cases of cyber stalking victims that have been targeted for financial reasons; the symbolic aspect of a victim is often the cause for criminality. The offender finds value in harassing their victims. Visibility relates to the risk to be observed by potential criminals. In cyber stalking, this may not always be physically visibility, but may have found shape in an online encounter such as in a chat room. Accessibility entails the ease with which an
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offender can approach a target without attracting suspicion or attention. Cyber stalkers are highly intelligent when it comes to cyber technologies and can thus easily find and approach their victims in order to exploit them, often remaining unidentified due to the anonymity of cyber space. Lastly, inertia refers to the ease with which a target can be acquired. Cyber stalkers can access information about their victims effortlessly due to factors such as careless disposal of personal details as well as the absence of protective software.
Absence of capable guardian (protection)
The lack of capable guardianship may increase the likelihood of crime. There are many forms of guardianship such as a police officer, security camera or an alarm system. The theory suggests that the presence of a capable guardian will prevent victimisation but at the same time may displace crime. With regard to cyber stalking, guardianship may be in terms of protective software or responsible awareness of the dangers of cyber space to prevent possible victimisation. It should, however, be noted that even these protective measures may contribute to crime displacement especially when dealing with a motivated offender.
2.8 CONCLUSION
In this chapter the relevant literature was discussed. The nature of cyber stalking, previous research in the field, legislation and criminological theories were investigated. Although cyber stalking is a comprehensive topic; the study rests itself on its aims and objectives, therefore is only concerned with issues within these boundaries set out in Chapter 1. As retrieved from the literature review, it can be established that cyber stalking is a clandestine phenomenon and deserves to be thoroughly looked into. The researcher seeks to educate its reader on the phenomenon of cyber stalking and its legal protective nature. In this way, the study aims to contribute to the knowledge production of contemporary crimes such as cyber stalking and the empowerment of past, present and future victims of cyber stalking.
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THE CRIMINAL EVENT: THE LIVED EXPERIENCES OF CYBER STALKING