BOLETÍN OFICIAL DEL ESTADO
MÓDULO FORMATIVO 8
A US Immigration and Customs Enforcement helicopter patrols the
airspace over New York City.
In addition to military efforts abroad, in the aftermath of 9/11 the Bush Administration increased domestic efforts to prevent future attacks. Various government bureaucracies which handled security and military functions were reorganized. A new cabinet level agency called the United States Department of Homeland Security was created in November 2002 to lead and coordinate the largest reorganization of the US federal government since the consolidation of the armed forces into the Department of Defense.
The Justice Department launched the National Security Entry-Exit Registration System for certain male non-citizens in the US, requiring them to register in person at offices of the Immigration and Naturalization Service.
The USA PATRIOT Act of October 2001 dramatically reduces restrictions on law enforcement agencies' ability to search telephone, e-mail communications, medical, financial, and other records; eases restrictions on foreign intelligence gathering within the United States; expands the Secretary of the Treasury’s authority to regulate financial transactions, particularly those involving foreign
individuals and entities; and broadens the discretion of law enforcement and immigration authorities in detaining and deporting immigrants suspected of terrorism-related acts. The act also expanded the definition of terrorism to include domestic terrorism, thus enlarging the number of activities to which the USA PATRIOT Act's expanded law enforcement powers could be applied. A new Terrorist Finance Tracking Program monitored the movements of terrorists' financial resources (discontinued after being revealed by The New York Times newspaper). Telecommunication usage by known and suspected terrorists was studied through the NSA electronic surveillance program. The Patriot Act is still in effect.
Political interest groups have stated that these laws remove important restrictions on governmental authority, and are a dangerous encroachment on civil liberties, possible unconstitutional violations of the Fourth Amendment. On 30 July 2003, the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) filed the first legal challenge against Section 215 of the Patriot Act, claiming that it allows the FBI to violate a citizen's First Amendment rights, Fourth Amendment rights, and right to due process, by granting the government the right to search a person's business, bookstore, and library records in a terrorist investigation, without disclosing to the individual that records were being searched.[115] Also, governing bodies in a number of communities have passed symbolic resolutions against the act.
In a speech on 9 June 2005, Bush said that the USA PATRIOT Act had been used to bring charges against more than 400 suspects, more than half of whom had been convicted. Meanwhile the ACLU quoted Justice Department figures showing that 7,000 people have complained of abuse of the Act.
The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) began an initiative in early 2002 with the creation of the Total Information Awareness program, designed to promote information technologies that could be used in counter-terrorism. This program, facing criticism, has since been defunded by Congress.
By 2003, 12 major conventions and protocols were designed to combat terrorism. These were adopted and ratified by a number of states. These conventions require states to co-operate on principal issues regarding unlawful seizure of aircraft, the physical protection of nuclear materials, and the freezing of assets of militant networks.[116]
In 2005, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 1624 concerning incitement to commit acts of terrorism and
the obligations of countries to comply with international human rights laws.[117] Although both resolutions require
mandatory annual reports on counter-terrorism activities by adopting nations, the United States and Israel have both declined to submit reports. In the same year, the United States Department of Defense and the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff issued a planning document, by the name "National Military Strategic Plan for the War on Terrorism" which stated that it constituted the "comprehensive military plan to prosecute the Global War on Terror for the
Armed Forces of the United States...including the findings and recommendations of the 9/11 Commission and a rigorous examination with the Department of Defense".
On 9 January 2007, the House of Representatives passed a bill, by a vote of 299–128, enacting many of the
recommendations of the 9/11 Commission The bill passed in the US Senate,[118] by a vote of 60–38, on 13 March
2007 and it was signed into law on 3 August 2007 by President Bush. It became Public Law 110-53. In July 2012,
US Senate passed a resolution urging that the Haqqani Network be designated a foreign terrorist organisation.[119]
The Office of Strategic Influence was secretly created after 9/11 for the purpose of coordinating propaganda efforts, but was closed soon after being discovered. The Bush administration implemented the Continuity of Operations Plan (or Continuity of Government) to ensure that US government would be able to continue in catastrophic circumstances.
Since 9/11, extremists made various attempts to attack the US homeland, with varying levels of organization and skill. For example, vigilant passengers aboard a transatlantic flight prevented Richard Reid, in 2001, and Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, in 2009, from detonating an explosive device.
Other terrorist plots have been stopped by federal agencies using new legal powers and investigative tools, sometimes in cooperation with foreign governments.
Such thwarted attacks include: • The 2001 shoe bomb plot
• A plan to crash airplanes into the US Bank Tower (aka Library Tower) in Los Angeles • The 2003 plot by Iyman Faris to blow up the Brooklyn Bridge in New York City
• The 2004 Financial buildings plot which targeted the International Monetary Fund and World Bank buildings in Washington, DC, the New York Stock Exchange and other financial institutions
• The 2004 Columbus Shopping Mall Bombing Plot • The 2006 Sears Tower plot
• The 2007 Fort Dix attack plot
• The 2007 John F. Kennedy International Airport attack plot
• The New York Subway Bombing Plot and 2010 Times Square car bombing attempt
The Obama administration has promised the closing of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, increased the number of troops in Afghanistan, and promised the withdrawal of its troops from Iraq.
Casualties
According to Joshua Goldstein, a international relations professor from the American University, The Global War on Terror has seen fewer war deaths than any other decade in the past century.[120]
There is no widely agreed on figure for the number of people that have been killed so far in the War on Terror as it has been defined by the Bush Administration to include the war in Afghanistan, the war in Iraq, and operations elsewhere. Some estimates include the following:
•• Iraq: 62,570 to 1,124,000
• Opinion Research Business (ORB) poll conducted 12–19 August 2007 estimated 1,033,000 violent deaths due to the Iraq War. The range given was 946,000 to 1,120,000 deaths. A nationally representative sample of approximately 2,000 Iraqi adults answered whether any members of their household (living under their roof) were killed due to the Iraq War. 22% of the respondents had lost one or more household members. ORB reported that "48% died from a gunshot wound, 20% from the impact of a car bomb, 9% from aerial bombardment, 6% as a result of an accident and 6% from another blast/ordnance."[121][122][123]
• Between 392,979 and 942,636 estimated Iraqi (655,000 with a confidence interval of 95%), civilian and combatant, according to the second Lancet survey of mortality.
• A minimum of 62,570 civilian deaths reported in the mass media up to 28 April 2007 according to Iraq Body Count project.[124]
• 4,409 US military dead (929 non-hostile deaths), and 31,926 wounded in action during Operation Iraqi
Freedom.[125] 66 US Military dead (28 non-hostile deaths), and 295 wounded in action during Operation New
Dawn.[125]
•• Afghanistan: between 10,960 and 49,600
• According to Marc W. Herold's extensive database,[126] between 3,100 and 3,600 civilians were directly killed
by US Operation Enduring Freedom bombing and Special Forces attacks between 7 October 2001 and 3 June 2003. This estimate counts only "impact deaths"—deaths that occurred in the immediate aftermath of an explosion or shooting—and does not count deaths that occurred later as a result of injuries sustained, or deaths that occurred as an indirect consequence of the US airstrikes and invasion.
• In an opinion article published in August 2002 in the magazine The Weekly Standard, Joshua Muravchik of the American Enterprise Institute,[127] questioned Professor Herold's study entirely on the basis of one single incident that involved 25–93 deaths. He did not provide any estimate his own.[128]
• In a pair of January 2002 studies, Carl Conetta of the Project on Defense Alternatives estimates that "at least" 4,200–4,500 civilians were killed by mid-January 2002 as a result of the US war and airstrikes, both directly as casualties of the aerial bombing campaign, and indirectly in the resulting humanitarian crisis.
• His first study, "Operation Enduring Freedom: Why a Higher Rate of Civilian Bombing Casualties?",[129]
released 18 January 2002, estimates that, at the low end, "at least" 1,000–1,300 civilians were directly killed in the aerial bombing campaign in just the 3 months between 7 October 2001 to 1 January 2002. The author found it impossible to provide an upper-end estimate to direct civilian casualties from the Operation Enduring
Freedom bombing campaign that he noted as having an increased use of cluster bombs.[130] In this lower-end
estimate, only Western press sources were used for hard numbers, while heavy "reduction factors" were
applied to Afghan government reports so that their estimates were reduced by as much as 75%.[131]
• In his companion study, "Strange Victory: A critical appraisal of Operation Enduring Freedom and the Afghanistan war",[132] released 30 January 2002, Conetta estimates that "at least" 3,200 more Afghans died by mid-January 2002, of "starvation, exposure, associated illnesses, or injury sustained while in flight from war zones", as a result of the US war and airstrikes.
• In similar numbers, a Los Angeles Times review of US, British, and Pakistani newspapers and international wire services found that between 1,067 and 1,201 direct civilian deaths were reported by those news organizations during the five months from 7 October 2001 to 28 February 2002. This review excluded all civilian deaths in Afghanistan that did not get reported by US, British, or Pakistani news, excluded 497 deaths that did get reported in US, British, and Pakistani news but that were not specifically identified as civilian or military, and excluded 754 civilian deaths that were reported by the Taliban but not independently
confirmed.[133]
• According to Jonathan Steele of The Guardian between 20,000 and 49,600 people may have died of the consequences of the invasion by the spring of 2002.[134]
• 2,046 US military dead (339 non-hostile deaths), and 18,201 wounded in action.[125]
•• Pakistan: Between 1467 and 2334 people were killed in U.S. drone attacks as of 6 May 2011. •• Yemen
•• Germany
• Two Airmen were killed, another two were wounded at Frankfurt Airport by Arid Uka; they were en route to deployment to Afghanistan.[135]
• In December 2007, The Elman Peace and Human Rights Organization said it had verified 6,500 civilian deaths, 8,516 people wounded, and 1.5 million displaced from homes in Mogadishu alone during the year 2007.[136]
•• USA
• Two radicals, John Allen Muhammad and Lee Boyd Malvo, conducted sniper attacks in Washington, D.C., Maryland, and Virginia in October 2002. Ten people were killed and three others were critically wounded in those shootings.[137]
• 1 June 2009, Pvt. William Andrew Long was shot and killed by Abdulhakim Muhammad, while standing unarmed outside a recruiting facility in Little Rock AR.[138][139]
• On 5 November 2009, Nidal Malik Hasan, an Islamic extremist, shot and killed 13 people and wounded 30 others in Fort Hood, Texas.[140]
Total American casualties from the War on Terror
(this includes fighting throughout the world):
US Military killed 6,639[125] US Military wounded 50,422[125] US DoD Civilians killed 16[125] US Civilians killed (includes 9/11 and after) 3,000 + US Civilians wounded/injured 6,000 + Total Americans killed (military and civilian) 9,655 + Total Americans wounded/injured 56,422 +
Total American casualties 66,077 +
[141][142][143][144][145]
Costs
A March 2011 Congressional report[146] estimated spending related to the war through fiscal year 2011 at $1.2
trillion, and that spending through 2021 assuming a reduction to 45,000 troops would be $1.8 trillion. A June 2011
academic report[146] covering additional areas of spending related to the war estimated it through 2011 at $2.7
trillion, and long term spending at $5.4 trillion including interest.[147]
Expense CRS/CBO (Billions US$):[148][149][150] Watson (Billions constant US$):[151]
FY2001-FY2011
War appropriations to DoD 1208.1 1311.5
War appropriations to DoS/USAid 66.7 74.2
VA medical 8.4 13.7
VA disability 18.9
Interest paid on DoD war appropriations 185.4
Additions to DoD base spending 362.2-652.4
Additions to Homeland Security base spending 401.2 Social costs to veterans and military families to date 295-400
FY2012-future
FY2012 DoD request 118.4
FY2012 DoS/USAid request 12.1
Projected 2013-2015 war spending 168.6
Projected 2016-2020 war spending 155
Projected obligations for veterans' care to 2051 589-934 Additional interest payments to 2020 1000
Total: 454.1 2043.1-2388.1
Subtotal: 1737.3 4705.2-5445.4
Criticism
Participants in a rally, dressed as hooded detainees.
Criticism of the War on Terror addresses the issues, morals, ethics, efficiency, economics, and other questions surrounding the War on Terror and made against the phrase itself, calling it a misnomer. The notion of a "war" against "terrorism" has proven highly contentious, with critics charging that it has been exploited by participating
governments to pursue long-standing policy / military objectives,[152]
reduce civil liberties,[153] and infringe upon human rights. It is argued
that the term war is not appropriate in this context (as in War on Drugs), since there is no identifiable enemy, and that it is unlikely international terrorism can be brought to an end by military means.[154]
Other critics, such as Francis Fukuyama, note that "terrorism" is not an
enemy, but a tactic; calling it a "war on terror", obscures differences between conflicts such as anti-occupation insurgents and international mujahideen. With a military presence in Iraq and Afghanistan and its associated
collateral damage Shirley Williams maintains this increases resentment and terrorist threats against the West.[155]
There is also perceived U.S. hypocrisy,[156] media induced hysteria,[157] and that differences in foreign and security
policy have damaged America's image in most of the world.[158]
Notes
[1] ETA "Presidential Address to the Nation" (http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/10/print/20011007-8. html) (Press release). The White House Clockwise, starting at top left:Burning ruins of the World Trade Center, US soldiers board a Chinook helicopter during Operation Anaconda, an Afghan and US soldier stand by to engage an enemy, a car bomb detonates in Baghdad, Iraq. 11 September 2001. .
[2] "Bush likens 'war on terror' to WWIII" (http://web.archive.org/web/20110204112337/http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/ 200605/s1632213.htm). ABC News Online – Abc.net.au. 06/05/2006. Archived from the original (http://www.abc.net.au/news/ newsitems/200605/s1632213.htm) on 4 February 2011. . Retrieved 26 March 2011.
[3] Thomas L. Friedman (13 September 2009). "Foreign Affairs; World War III" (http://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/13/opinion/ foreign-affairs-world-war-iii.html?sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all). New York Times. . Retrieved 10 November 2009.
[4] "World War II Strikes Spain" (http://articles.nydailynews.com/2004-03-12/news/18257093_1_al-qaeda-mayor-bloomberg-basque). Daily
News (New York). 12 March 2004. . Retrieved 10 November 2009.
[5] Charles Feldman and Stan Wilson (3 April 2003). "Ex-CIA director: U.S. faces 'World War IV'" (http://web.archive.org/web/ 20080727025549/http://www.cnn.com/2003/US/04/03/sprj.irq.woolsey.world.war/index.html). CNN. Archived from the original (http://www.cnn.com/2003/US/04/03/sprj.irq.woolsey.world.war/) on 27 July 2008. .
[6] Coman, Julian (13 April 2003). "'We want them to be nervous' (That means you Ali, Bashar and Kim)" (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/ worldnews/middleeast/syria/1427428/We-want-them-to-be-nervous-That-means-you-Ali-Bashar-and-Kim.html). The Daily Telegraph (London). . Retrieved 9 November 2009.
[7] Elio A. Cohen (20 November 2001). "World War IV" (http://web.archive.org/web/20040406043752/http://www.opinionjournal.com/ editorial/feature.html?id=95001493). The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original (http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/ feature.html?id=95001493) on 6 April 2004. . Retrieved 9 November 2009.
[8] Thompson, Mark (26 December 2008). "The $1 Trillion Bill for Bush's War on Terror" (http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/ 0,8599,1868367,00.html). TIME. . Retrieved 26 March 2011.
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[28] David Kravets, " Former CIA Chief: Obama’s War on Terror Same as Bush’s, But With More Killing (http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/ 2012/09/bush-obama-war-on-terror/)", Wired, 10 September 2012.
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[35] Borhan Uddin Khan and Muhammad Mahbubur Rahman, “Combating Terrorism under Human Rights and Humanitarian Law Regime”, Mediterranean Journal of Human Rights, Vol. 12 (Double Issue), 2008, pp.379–397.
[36] "Civil Rights and the "War on Terror"" (http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/issues/security-and-human-rights?id=1108209).
[37] Cooley, John K. (Spring 2003). "Unholy Wars: Afghanistan, America and International Terrorism" (http://web.archive.org/web/ 20080219234628/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3996/is_200304/ai_n9199132) (reprint). Demokratizatsiya. Archived from the original (http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3996/is_200304/ai_n9199132) on 19 February 2008. .
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[43] "Report of the Accountability Review Boards" (http://www.state.gov/www/regions/africa/board_introduction.html). US Department of State. 7 August 1998. .
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