A thematic analysis was adopted to examine the 12 life histories. As previously mentioned, life histories are a qualitative method. Since qualitative approaches are incredibly diverse, complex and nuanced a thematic analysis was used as the foundation for the analysis of the data in order to accommodate the intricate and thematic nature of this methodology (Clarke and Braun 2006, 77). A thematic analysis can be simply
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denoted as a method that is used for identifying, analysing and reporting patterns (themes) in data (Clarke and Braun 2006, 78). This analysis helped determine the masculinity themes within the life histories of the 12 footballers. A theme capture is something that is considered significant and pertinent to the research question and reflects a clear patterned response or meaning within the 12 interviews (Clarke and Braun 2006, 82).
An inductive or theoretical analysis can be conducted. In this study a theoretical analysis, which is more explicit than the inductive ‘ground theory’, was used to identify relative themes to answer the research question and link to the masculinity theoretical framework (Clarke and Braun 2006, 84). In addition, thematic analysis can look for semantic (or in other words explicit ideas) or latent, underlying/interpretative themes. This analysis did not limit itself to one type of theme but looked for both semantic and latent themes within the 12 life histories.
Clark and Braun (2006) have delineated a six phase process for analysis:
1. Familiarizing yourself with your data: Transcribing data (if necessary), reading and re-reading the data; noting down initial ideas.
2. Generating initial codes: Coding interesting features of the data in a systematic fashion across the entire data set; collating data relevant to each code.
3. Searching for themes: Collating codes into potential themes; gathering all data relevant to each potential theme.
4. Reviewing themes: Checking if the themes work in relation to the coded extracts (Level 1) and the entire data set (Level 2); generating a thematic ‘map’ of the analysis.
5. Defining and naming themes: Ongoing analysis to refine the specifics of each theme, and the overall story the analysis tells; generating clear definitions and names for each theme.
6. Producing the report: The final opportunity for analysis; selection of vivid, compelling extracted examples, final analysis of selected extracts, relating the analysis back to the research question and literature, and producing a scholarly report of the analysis.
3.4.1 Phase 1: Transcription (Familiarizing yourself with Data)
The first step in the thematic analysis was to transcribe the audio tapes. This assisted in the coding of themes. NVivo 9.0, a qualitative coding software package, was used to code the major topics and store the interview transcripts (Richards 2005). The initial reading involved the extraction of fragments of data to examine the life histories. Open coding was utilised to ‘break’ the data apart and delineate concepts that stand for blocks of raw data. At the same time, those concepts qualified in terms of their properties and dimensions (Corbin and Strauss 2008, 195). This time-consuming and labour- intensive approach to coding was employed to extract the themes from the interviews. This exercise aided in two ways: in familiarisation of the data and in providing a holistic background of the repetitive fragments of data that helped guide the sub-themes created in Phase 2. However, before proceeding to the next phase, fragments of data were filtered to gain several pertinent quotes.
3.4.2 Phase 2: Coding Preliminary Masculinities Themes/Generating Initial Codes
Themes are defined as units derived from patterns such as “conversation topics, vocabulary, meanings, feelings and interactions” (Taylor and Bogdan 1984, 133). Themes are identified by collecting components or fragments of data, which can be meaningless if viewed alone (Leinginer 1985, 60). Accordingly, this stage involved perusing transcripts to reach conclusions regarding the theme that the particular part of the interview evinced. As already stated, several key themes were used as a starting point. It was anticipated that other themes and sub-themes would emerge and be accommodated in this step, creating broader themes. Themes would be guided but not restricted to the preliminary masculinity themes. The eight keys themes that were created into nodes, and thus were the preliminary themes, were:
division of labour power dynamics sexual awakening
masculinity and femininity violence
crises body
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3.4.3 Phase 3: Distinguishing, Grouping and Merging Sub-themes (Searching for themes: Collating codes into potential themes, gathering all data relevant to each potential theme)
In this step sub-themes were noted, combined, linked or catalogued under the broader, aforementioned themes. Firstly, sub-themes were created under division of labour and power dynamics, based on the compartmentalisation in the interview guides, namely household, other households, parents’ workplace, peer group and school. Patterns emerged which were labelled as a new theme or merged into an existing theme, or a sub- theme was created and catalogued. Similar sub-themes were grouped together. This phase involved axial coding which means cross-cutting or the relating of concepts (Corbin and Strauss 2008, 195). For instance, for violence we found a duality of positive and negative elicitation so these were created into sub-themes. Lastly, off-field violence was distinguished into three main components: opinions or causes, media sensationalism/overhype, and preventions or recommendations. This is illustrated in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Sub-themes
3.4.4 Phase 4: Conclusion of Masculinities Themes (Reviewing, Defining and Naming Themes)
Following the collating of themes a draft of the findings was written out, which produced approximately 40,000 words of prose. This overload of information, which was coined a ‘data dump’, was then filtered into the masculinities framework. The broader themes of division of labour, power dynamic, sexual awakening, etc. were categorised under the masculinities framework. Specifically, themes were categorised as one of the six masculinities and one femininity:
hegemonic masculinity inclusive masculinity subordinate masculinity oppositional masculinity marginalised masculinity complicit masculinity hegemonic/emphasised femininity.
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Hegemonic or orthodox masculinity is the highest of the masculinities and has recently been joined or supplanted by inclusive masculinity. Subordinate masculinities are inferior masculinities. Oppositional masculinities denote violence and socially unacceptable displays of hegemony. Marginalised masculinities refer to the phenomenon of accepted but still diminished power, while complicit masculinities condone hegemonic masculinities and gain residual effects from hegemony. Lastly, the complimentary and ancillary role of hegemonic femininity was also categorised.
3.4.5 Phase 5: Producing the Report as a Basis for the Findings Chapters
This phase produced a scholarly report of the analysis which provided the structure for the findings chapters. There are several advantages of using a thematic analysis. In particular it is easy to learn, is quick and effective to complete, and doesn't require extensive training or experience. Results are also generally accessible and understood by individuals with or without an academic background. This can be useful, as the football code organizations will also need access to this information (Clarke and Braun 2006, 97). This method of analysis is specifically apt for a participatory research paradigm such as the one used in this study (Clarke and Braun 2006, 97). In addition, the analysis can highlight similarities and differences across the data set and summarise key features of large data sets, including the life histories used in this thesis. The analysis can also provide unanticipated insights as it can be viewed using a social, psychological and theoretical interpretation. This flexibility is the most significant advantage of thematic analysis (Clarke and Braun 2006, 97).
The following 15-point checklist was devised to ensure that the thematic analysis outlined for this research improved the validity of the analytical process and each of the steps (Clarke and Braun 2006, 96):
1. The data were transcribed to an appropriate level of detail and checked against the tapes for ‘accuracy’.
2. Coding: Each data item has been given equal attention in the coding process.
3. Themes have not been generated from a few vivid examples (an anecdotal approach).
4. The coding process has been thorough, inclusive and comprehensive. 5. All relevant extracts for each theme have been collated.
6. Themes have been checked against each other and the original data set. 7. Themes are internally coherent, consistent and distinctive.
8. Analysis: Data have been analysed, interpreted, made sense of rather than just paraphrased or described.
9. Analysis and data match each other and/the extracts illustrate the analytic claims.
10. Analysis tells a convincing and well-organised story about the data and topic.
11. A good balance between an analytic narrative and illustrative extracts is provided.
12. Overall: Enough time has been allocated to complete all phases of the analysis adequately, without rushing a phase or giving it a once-over- lightly.
13. Written report: The assumptions about, and specific approach to, thematic analysis are clearly explicated.
14. There is a good fit between ‘what you claim you do, and what you show you have done’; that is, described method and reported analysis are consistent.
15. The language and concepts used in the report are consistent with the epistemological position of the analysis. The researcher is positioned as active in the research process; themes do not just ‘emerge’.