The Salvation Army increasingly conformed to the characteristics of a denomination rather than a sect. 257 In his study of The Salvation Army in the United States, Hazzard
found church like tendencies developing in the second half of the twentieth century.258
This is also the case in New Zealand, with Commissioner Cunningham in 1934 noting a tendency for the Army’s field work and meetings to become “unaggressive” and “just like a church.”259 Conformity of The Salvation Army in New Zealand to the movement
internationally was achieved by appointing overseas trained officers, usually from Britain, to the two most senior leadership positions in New Zealand. The first New Zealand trained officer to be appointed as Territorial Commander of the organisation in New Zealand was Ernest Elliot in 1972.260 Prior to 1950 only two Chief Secretaries
were New Zealand officers. Bradwell notes that “New Zealanders have had legitimate cause for complaint in that International Headquarters has seen fit to overlook so consistently the claim of New Zealand officers …to the high executive positions in this country.”261 He also notes that “some of the surviving correspondence and reports of the
twenties reveal surprising misjudgements of personalities and faulty assessments of situations in New Zealand by commissioners unfamiliar with the country and its people.”262 Aitken confirms that relationships between New Zealand Salvationists and
their leaders at Territorial Headquarters may have been difficult, writing that “both
256 This more inward focus is illustrated in The War Cry with many of the articles in the magazine only
being of interest to Salvationists. For example, in the edition dated March 2, 1940 reports include, “A Preview of the Centennial Congress,” “Field Despatches-Latest Reports of Army Doings Throughout the Dominion,” and “Our Musical Fraternity.”
257 John W. Hazzard, “Marching in the Margins,” Review of Religious Research 40, no.2 (1998): 122.
Hazzard suggests that the religious norms of denomination are closer to secular norms, while the religious norms of a sect are relatively distant from secular norms.
258 Ibid., 138.
259 Aitken, “Aspects of the History of The Salvation Army in New Zealand, 1929-1963,” 46. 260 Bradwell, Fight the Good Fight, 120.
261 Bradwell “An Outline History of The Salvation Army in New Zealand,” 118. 262 Bradwell, Fight the Good Fight, 99.
78 CommissionerEvan Smith and Commissioner Hoggard noted in their reports a “spirit of disloyalty to Headquarters” which had to be overcome.263 One incident exemplifies this
disconnection between Territorial Headquarters and some New Zealand Salvationists. In the late 1930s a group of young men from Linwood Corps formed a rugby team which was linked to the Merivale Rugby Football Club. Senior leadership at Territorial
Headquarters objected to Salvationists being linked to an outside club and Chief Secretary Grattan instructed the Divisional Commander to disband the team. The Divisional Commander Brigadier Charles Gray’s response to Headquarters was that their instruction was ridiculous and he had no intention of implementing it.264 New
Zealand Salvationists were delighted when a New Zealand officer, Bramwell Cook was appointed Chief Secretary in 1954.265 These comments and incidents show that there
were tensions and conflicts between The Salvation Army’s global regulations and practices, and societal norms in New Zealand. In its early years The Salvation Army positioned itself outside the norms of New Zealand society and more closely adhered to the culture and practices of the global movement. In this later period many members of the organisation increasingly conformed to the cultural norms of New Zealand life, whether as Salvationist men who played rugby or Salvationist women who focused on their home and family like many other New Zealand women at this time.
Dissent and criticism by New Zealand officers of their senior leaders could result in significant consequences for them. In the course of my research I have found three examples of women officers who took matters into their own hands and went over the heads of the senior leadership in New Zealand to take their concerns directly to the General, or to his wife. When General Carpenter and his wife visited New Zealand in
263 Evan Smith: Report, 1942 p.4: Hoggard: Report, 1956, p.34. Quoted in Aitken, “Aspects of the History of
The Salvation Army in New Zealand, 1929-1963,” 129. I have not been able to read these reports as they are no longer available to researchers. The lack of access to these reports means I am unable to comment on the degree of autonomy that the Territorial Commander had in running the organisation in New Zealand or get a sense of the relationship that the Territorial Commander had with International Headquarters. Territorial Commanders to New Zealand were usually mid-career officers who would often go on to hold significant positions with The Salvation Army. A question outside the scope of this thesis is to determine what impact having key senior leadership positions held by non-New Zealand officers had on the growth and development of The Salvation Army in New Zealand.
264 Bradwell, Touched With Splendour, 49-50 and H. Bramwell Cook, Think on These Things: The Salvation Army Christchurch City Corps, 1883-2008 (Christchurch: The Salvation Army Christchurch City Corps, 2008), 73.
79 1946 it appears that Eva Radcliffe took concerns about her retirement pension to the General and Laura Dutton is known to have approached Mrs General Carpenter about being denied the opportunity by the New Zealand leadership, to serve on the mission field.266 The most significant dispute between a New Zealand woman officer and the
New Zealand leadership is that involving Florence Birks, which is discussed in detail later in this thesis.267 The Salvation Army encouraged intense loyalty from soldiers to
their corps with the corps and its activities central to their lives. It provided not only spiritual activities but also Red Shield Guides and Scouts, sporting and musical activities. Major notes “The Salvationist lived for his or her corps with the attendant social life, association and friendships this offered.”268 Aitken writes that the corps
provided “an intense sense of community which is carefully fostered by the Army’s leaders, an ‘in-group’ for its members” [who were] “tightly bound together as a social group” [with a] “unity strengthened by ties of family and friendship, common interests, a common religious experience.”269
During this period there was an increasing conformity to, and co-operation with, other Protestant churches. There was no longer a suspicious withdrawal from other established churches but co-operation, support and willing participation in inter-church events with the organisation joining the National Council of Churches in 1944.270 Some
Protestant ministers, however, were not always happy to acknowledge that women Salvation Army officers were ministers, just as they were. Lieut.-Colonel Viola Blincoe writes in her memoirs
Not only were women not wanted at the corps but by the Ministers’ Fraternal as well. They failed to notify us of the first meeting but I was very conscious of it and decided if it happened again I would approach them. However before the next
266 Eva Radcliffe correspondence held at The Salvation Army New Zealand, Fiji & Tonga-Heritage Centre &
Archives and “Pioneered Prison Work,” The War Cry, June 8, 1946, p. 3 and also Sampson, Women of Spirit,
162.
267 See pages 123-125 of this thesis. 268 Major, “The Salvation Army,”46.
269 Aitken, “Aspects of the History of The Salvation Army in New Zealand, 1929-1963,” 29. 270 Bradwell, Fight the Good Fight, 111.
80 meeting the Anglican Minister called and frankly admitted that they were doubtful about including women in their gatherings but had decided to invite us and he had been chosen to contact us.271