In order to address the research questions, different strategies of enquiry were incorporated. For the first part of the research, a configurative review was developed. In completing the review the literature was examined relating to memory and trauma across the developmental lifespan and from different theoretical perspectives. (Gough et al. 2012). Developmental research focused on early trauma and the impact on cognitive development and the later impact on memory. Neurobiological theories focused on the human stress response and in particular the physiological changes that impede the processing of a traumatic memory. Psychological theories focused on the cognitive component of trauma, how one makes sense of it and their appraisals of the event. Social theories considered the role of the social context and how others respond to trauma. By abstracting the literature provided by different theoretical models, an inductive approach enabled an emergent theory to develop (Gough et al. 2012). By synthesising the literature and applying it to the research problem an informative conceptual model was developed to increase understanding of the difficulties experienced by individuals following traumatic sexual violation and their ability to give evidence and engage with the Criminal Justice Process.
The second part of the research utilised a number of open but in-depth interviews with police participants and also constructed an emergent theory that provides a focused exploration of police perspectives. Informed by a grounded theory methodology, it recognises that there are multiple perspectives but does provide some insight into some of the difficulties encountered at this point in time, by police working with victims of traumatic sexual violation and within the current Criminal Justice System (Bryant and Charmaz, 2007).
The first part of the methodology addressed research question 1 by examining and configuring the empirical literature over the past two decades and bringing together a cohesive framework. As discussed above, this initial exploration involved an extensive review of the literature including neuro-physiological, psychological and social theories and developing a configurative theoretical synthesis (Gough et al. 2012). The aim was to develop a cohesive conceptual framework that can inform professionals about the impacts on memory when individuals may be vulnerable to the development of PTSD. For this purpose, the literature was extensively read and analysed to enable a broad understanding of the different issues in relation to evidence giving when there are problems relating to the accuracy of witness testimonies and how these issues become more complex over time.
This empirical chapter includes some historical texts that are noted for reference but synthesis of the literature is limited to peer reviewed journal articles beyond 1990 to date. In relation to any treatment strategies or approaches discussed within the review only evidence based clinical practice and theory is included. The process of the synthesis is the planning, searching, mapping, appraisal and synthesis stages and culminates in a number of recommendations for future actions (Gough et al. 2012). The review and synthesis is an inductive and iterative process although emerging theory remains grounded in the empirical data provided (Gough et al. 2012). The review question applies to research question 1 and its sub-questions.
Research question 1
‘What is the impact of traumatic sexual violation on memory processes and
functioning’? There are four sub-questions:
What makes a person vulnerable to developing PTSD following traumatic sexual violation?
Are there different psychopathological pathways that may impact on memory and in what way?
What effect does trauma have on a victim’s psychological functioning and consequent psychopathology?
How does this impact on their ability to give evidence?
The first stage of the review was to develop a search strategy and identify current research within the area of memory and PTSD, dissociation, childhood sexual abuse, rape or sexual assault. Studies were heterogeneous and were gained from a number of disciplines. Initially, both qualitative and quantitative empirical studies were considered but following a process of setting boundaries on the excessive amount of literature, only peer-reviewed articles between 1990 and 2017 were included (Gough et al. 2012). An inductive approach aimed to continue until a stage of saturation when no new themes emerged (Glaser, 1992; Bryant and Charmaz, 2007). Consideration was given to the fluidity of evolving theory and acknowledges that future research may shed more light onto the process of memory following trauma. Restrictions were also imposed because of time restraints and limits on size of thesis study.
Secondly a process of mapping was utilised to organise the literature in relation to the research questions but also to gain a holistic picture of how these different areas of study fit together to provide a wider understanding (Gough et al. 2012). By looking at the research from developmental stages of human development and the impact of trauma, a number of risks and vulnerabilities in the development of PTSD were identified (Ozer et al. 2003). Then the impact of an acute trauma was the focus. This led to a better understanding of the neurophysiology of stress and an individual’s response at the time of the trauma. These responses are also influenced by certain factors relating to the trauma itself (Bergmann, 2012). For rape and sexual assault, the feeling of ‘fear and entrapment’ was identified as the catalyst for a dissociative response and this has an impact on the encoding and retrieval of memory (Dell, 2009). When the literature was configured and synthesised, a conceptualisation was developed to facilitate an improved understanding in practice. This model is presented in chapter 4 and in complete form in appendix 2.
3.4.2 Interviews with participants
The second part of the research was informed by a grounded theory methodology and involved the simultaneous purposive collection of data and analysis. Other theorists apply a more systematic approach to analysing data (Strauss and Corbin, 2008). An objectivist viewpoint would be that ‘the data is out there to be
discovered and can lend itself to a reductionist inquiry of manageable research problems when applied with an objectivist rendering of data’ (Glaser, 1978).
Strauss and Corbin (1990) would also support the notion of an objective external reality that aims towards unbiased data collection. They do however propose that respondents should be represented as accurately as possible but acknowledging how respondents’ views of reality may be differently interpreted from that of the researcher. Glaser (1978, p.56) promotes ‘coding the data everyway possible’ but without forcing the data into pre-conceived categories using formulaic techniques. By using an open coding of the interview data, and making constant comparisons between it, theory is allowed to develop from and is grounded in the data in an inductive and iterative process (Glaser, 1992; Charmaz, 2006; Bryant and Charmaz, 2007). The interviews provided a means of answering research question 2 and its sub-questions:
Research question 2:
How are the effects on victim’s memory understood by police when collecting evidence and commencing criminal trial?
• How do police understand the impact of traumatic sexual violation and the development of PTSD?
• What do police consider to be barriers within the criminal justice system?
• What are the impacts within a wider social and legal context?