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On September 20, 2001, before a joint session of congress and speaking to the American people, President Bush declared that to fight the war on terror:

We will direct every resource at our command – every means of diplomacy, every tool of intelligence, every instrument of law enforcement, every financial influence, and every necessary weapon of war – to the disruption and to the defeat of the global terror network.3

Although rhetorical flourish, this description captures the radical shift in focus of American capabilities towards counterterrorism, on a scale not seen before, following the 9/11 attacks. The war on terror, leveraging the capabilities of the U.S. government and accompanied by a dramatic increase in funding, sought to: defeat terrorists and their organizations; deny sponsorship, support, and sanctuary to terrorists; diminish the underlying conditions that terrorists seek to exploit; and, defend U.S. citizens and interests at home and abroad.4 _{These initiatives have involved: the full weight of}

executive influence and authority; a wide range of bilateral and multilateral diplomatic efforts; intensive use of overt and covert intelligence activities; the prioritized focus of domestic and international law enforcement and financial regulation; and, extensive military participation in a wide range of local joint operations in addition to two full- scale wars.

Policy leaders, thinkers, and commentators quickly identified that a primary element of the war on terror should be a focus on winning popular support amongst Muslim populations, whether they called it a battle for hearts and minds, a war of ideas, or the ideological centre of gravity for the new long war. The importance of this effort was repeatedly emphasized by administration figures from Bush to Rumsfeld, as well as

3 _{Bush, "Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People."} 4 _{"National Strategy for Combating Terrorism."}

by their critics.5 This “race for Muslim hearts and minds” has also been a repeated concern emphasized by Usama bin Laden, Ayman al-Zawahiri, and many others supportive of their cause.6 This section introduces many of the major initiatives

5 _{Arkin, 2006b, "Rumsfeld's Incomplete Information War," Early Warning 2006}

(February 21), Washington Post,

http://blogs.washingtonpost.com/earlywarning/2006/02/rumsfelds_infor.html. Becker, 2001, "A Nation Challenged: Hearts and Minds – A Special Report in the War on Terrorism, A Battle to Shape Opinion," The New York Times, November 11. Bush, 2005f, "President Honors Ambassador Karen Hughes at Swearing-In Ceremony," (September 9), The White House Office of the Press Secretary,

http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/09/20050909.html. Bush, 2006b, "President Bush and Prime Minister Rasmussen of Denmark Participate in Joint Press Availability," (June 9), The White House Office of the Press Secretary,

http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/06/20060609-2.html. Bush, 2007a, "Memorandum for the Secretary of State: Presidential Determination on Major Drug Transit or Major Illicit Drug Producing Countries for Fiscal Year 2008," (September 17), The White House Office of the Press Secretary,

http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2007/09/20070917-1.html. Cheney, 2007d, "Vice President’s Remarks to the American Legion," (November 1), The White House Office of the Vice President,

http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2007/11/20071101-2.html. Hoffman, 2002b, "Beyond Public Diplomacy (US Propaganda in Muslim Countries)," Foreign Affairs 81 (2), March-April. Holbrooke, "Get the Message Out.". "National Strategy for

Combating Terrorism," 1-2. "National Strategy for Combating Terrorism," 2006, Washington, DC: The White House, September,

http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nsct/2006/nsct2006.pdf. Paley, 2008, "Shift in Tactics Aims to Revive Struggling Insurgency, Al-Qaeda in Iraq Hopes A Softer Approach Will Win Back Anbar Sunnis," Washington Post, February 8, A13,

http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-

dyn/content/article/2008/02/07/AR2008020703854_pf.html. Rumsfeld, 2006a, "New Realities in the Media Age: A Conversation with Donald Rumsfeld," (February 17), Council on Foreign Relations, http://www.cfr.org/publication/9900/. Satloff, 2002, "Voices Who Speak for (and Against) Us," The Washington Post, December 1,

http://ics.leeds.ac.uk/papers/vp01.cfm?outfit=pmt&requesttimeout=500&folder=7&pap er=569. "The National Security Strategy of the United States of America," 2006, Washington, DC: The White House, March,

http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss/2006/nss2006.pdf. "US 'Losing Media War to al- Qaeda'," 2006, BBC News, February 17, http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-

/2/hi/americas/4725992.stm. Zimbardo, 2004, "A Situationist Perspective on the Psychology of Evil: Understanding How Good People are Transformed into

Perpetrators," In The Social Psychology of Good and Evil, ed. Miller: Guilford Press, 48.

6 _{Examples include: Zawahiri explaining that “In the absence of this popular support the}

jihadist movement would be crushed in the shadows” in his Knights Under the

Prophet’s Banner as quoted in Gerges, 2006b, Journey of the Jihadist: Inside Muslim Militancy, New York, Harcourt, Inc., 261. A letter from an al-Qaida senior commander

undertaken by the Bush administration through Presidential and Department of State public diplomacy efforts, targeted U.S. foreign aid programs, actions of the Department of Defense, and covert operations.

Public Diplomacy

As opposed to traditional diplomacy, consisting principally of interactions between governments in order to advance strategic goals, the focus on hearts and minds has most commonly led to calls for better public diplomacy, engaging “targeted sectors of foreign publics in order to develop support for those same strategic goals.”7 The official statements and policy framing of President Bush, as the individual most

recognized as representing the United States government internationally, plays perhaps the most important role in public diplomacy. Despite a few initial missteps, such as referring to America’s response as a crusade in the first week after 9/11, President Bush quickly took several actions to emphasize that the war on terror was focused only on violent extremists and not a clash with Islam in general.8 This included prominently appearing with American Muslim leaders, emphasizing respect for and commonalities with people of Muslim nations, and repeatedly portraying Islamist terrorists as fringe elements who perverted a good and peaceful religion.9 _{President Bush also frequently}

referenced and gave rhetorical emphasis to his Freedom Agenda, promoting democracy

named Atiyah to the leader of al-Qaida in Iraq Abu Musab al-Zarqawi: "Letter Exposes New Leader in Al-Qa'ida High Command," 2006: Combating Terrorism Center,

September 25, http://ctc.usma.edu/harmony/pdf/CTC-AtiyahLetter.pdf. The previously cited Zawahiri letter to Zarqawi: al-Zawahiri, "Letter from al-Zawahiri to al-Zarqawi."

7 _{Ross, 2003, "Public Diplomacy Comes of Age," In The Battle for Hearts and Minds:}

Using Soft Power to Undermine Terrorist Networks, ed. Lennon, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 251-2.

8 _{Ford, 2001a, "Europe Cringes at Bush 'Crusade' Against Terrorists," The Christian}

Science Monitor, September 19, http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/0919/p12s2- woeu.html.

9 _{Bush, "Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People.". Bush,}

2006a, "President Bush Addresses United Nations General Assembly," (September 19), The White House Office of the Press Secretary,

http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/09/20060919-4.html. Holbrooke, "Get the Message Out."

and individual rights as a means to counter terrorism, create a better future for people around the world, and improve American credibility internationally.10

The Department of State is the federal agency most closely associated with public diplomacy, with efforts including:

[C]risis management and daily news operations designed to explain U.S. foreign policy positions and actions; strategic information programs designed to more broadly engage, inform, and influence target audiences; and long-term activities, such as exchanges, to promote relationship building and mutual understanding.11 During the Cold War many of the efforts associated with informational aspects of public diplomacy were carried out by the United States Information Agency. When that was consolidated into the State Department during the 1990s, due to the demands of the powerful Senate Foreign Relations Chair Jesse Helms who had long opposed the agency, President Clinton created a new position of Under Secretary of State for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs.12

Shortly after the September 11th attacks, President Bush and Secretary of State Colin Powell underscored the importance of the war of ideas for the new war on terror by appointing Charlotte Beers to this post, the only person to have headed two of the top ten worldwide advertising agencies.13 When Beers took over she found that the

10 _{Bush, 2003b, "President Bush Discusses Freedom in Iraq and Middle East,"}

(November 6), The White House Office of the Press Secretary,

http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/11/20031106-2.html. Carothers, 2005, "Introduction," In Uncharted Journey: Promoting Democracy in the Middle East, ed. Carothers and Ottaway, Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 4. Cofman Wittes, 2007, "Moroccan Roulette: What happens if you hold an election and nobody comes?," Slate, August 24, http://www.slate.com/id/2172726/. Cofman Wittes and Yerkes, 2007, "The Middle East Freedom Agenda: An Update," Current History, January: 31, http://www.currenthistory.com/org_pdf_files/106/696/106_696_31.pdf.

11 _{GAO, 2006c, "U.S. Public Diplomacy: State Department Efforts to Engage Muslim}

Audiences Lack Certain Communication Elements and Face Significant Challenges," United States General Accountability Office, May, 1,

http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d06535.pdf.

12 _{Evelyn Lieberman was appointed by President Bill Clinton on October 1, 1999 and}

served until January 19, 2001. President Clinton created the post after the United States Information Agency was reorganized to be part of the Department of State after having long been opposed by the powerful Foreign Relations Chair, Senator Jesse Helms.

13 _{Beers had frequently been called “the most powerful woman in advertising.” Elliott,}

1999, "THE MEDIA BUSINESS: ADVERTISING; A shift in power for J. Walter Thompson as Madison Avenue's Steel Magnolia climbs aboard.," The New York Times, March 9,

remaining USIA staffers “were a demoralized lot, spread across a bureaucracy that cared little about their work” and with an annual budget equal to what the Pentagon spent in a day.14 Her tenure at State “included speeches by diplomats and prominent American Muslims to international audiences, a color magazine on Muslim life in America, a series of newspaper ads,” and five television ads showcasing the lives of Muslim Americans that ran over five weeks in a handful of Muslim countries. 15 She resigned from the post after 18 months as U.S. troops headed into Iraq, which was dominating attention globally and many believed overwhelming the efforts of her limited resources.16

Nine months later, President Bush appointed former Moroccan Ambassador Margaret D. Tutwiler as Undersecretary of State for Public Diplomacy. Many believed Beers’ difficulties originated from a lack of experience with the institutions and

traditions of the Department of State and federal bureaucracy, and hoped that Tutwiler’s resume would lead to more success. Unfortunately at the end of June 2004, just over six months after being appointed, she had also resigned.

Bush did not appoint a replacement to the post until September 2005 when he asked Karen Hughes to return from retirement in Texas. Many viewed the appointment of Hughes as an indication that public diplomacy efforts would finally have significant support from the top, given that she was a long time close associate and advisor to the President since his days as Governor of Texas and had managed the White House’s communication efforts in the first year of the war on terror. This proved at least partially true as she oversaw a near doubling of the public diplomacy budget, pushed through institutional reforms, and was reportedly responsible for changes in Presidential rhetoric

58260. Froomkin, 2004, "When We Say Us, We Mean It!," Houston Law Review 41. Hussein, 2005, "Arab/Muslim Image World-Wide: A Case for Introspection, and Intervention," Public Relations Review 31 (3), September.

14 _{Kaplan, 2005, "Hearts, Minds, and Dollars," U.S. News and World Report, April 25,}

http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/050425/25roots.htm.

15 _{Although the ads were heavily criticized at the time, one follow-up study conducted}

by the agency that developed the ads suggested they had a small but measurable positive effect for their target audience. Fullerton and Kendrick, 2006, Advertising's War on Terrorism, Marquette Books.

16 _{Becker, "A Nation Challenged.". Leubsdorf, 2006, "Winning Over Muslims by TV}

Ads May Work After All," WCNC, November 16,

http://www.wcnc.com/sharedcontent/nationworld/leubsdorf/111606ccdrNatLeubsdorf.4 36ebbdb.html.

thought to better reach out to Muslim audiences. Over the next two years, before

leaving the post at the end of 2007, Hughes built up instant-response and regional media teams to counter misinformation in the Arab media, hired more Arabic speakers to appear on media reaching Muslim audiences, sent out guest speakers who were (sometimes and somewhat) critical of U.S. policy, promoted cultural and educational exchanges, and travelled extensively.17

In early 2008, Bush nominated James Glassman to replace Hughes. Glassman had formerly chaired the Broadcasting Board of Governors, responsible for American efforts such as Alhurra TV and Radio Sawa. Supporters argued that the combination of his previous experience, including a private sector media and journalism career, made him perhaps the most qualified individual nominated to this post. Critics of American public diplomacy efforts also welcomed his appointment, given his honest assessments that “our enemies are eating our lunch in terms of getting the word out in digital

technology” and his defence that to have credibility international broadcasting needed to objectively and independently report the news rather than espouse desired American propaganda messages. However, because of opposition from a Republican senator to this perspective, Glassman was not confirmed until June 2008 leaving only a few months in President Bush’s second term and little time to make a significant impact.18

17 _{Hillman, 2006, "Hughes on Mission to Change Views Abroad - and at Home," Dallas}

Morning News, August 7,

http://www.dallasnews.com/sharedcontent/dws/dn/latestnews/stories/080706dninthughe s.21bfe4a.html. Kaplan, 2007b, "Heck of a Job, Hughsie: Karen Hughes Throws in the Towel," Slate, November 1, http://www.slate.com/id/2177248/. Kessler and Wright, 2007, "Hughes to Leave State Dept. After Mixed Results in Outreach Post," Washington Post, November 1, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-

dyn/content/article/2007/10/31/AR2007103100788.html. Knowlton, 2007, "Karen Hughes leaving Bush administration," International Herald Tribune, October 31, http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/10/31/america/diplomacy.php. Snyder, 2006b,

"Psychoanalyzing America's Public Diplomacy, While Private Enterprise Exerts Itself,"

Public Diplomacy Blog (November 15), USC Public Diplomacy,

http://uscpublicdiplomacy.com/index.php/newsroom/pdblog_detail/061115_psychoanal yzing_americas_public_diplomacy_private_enterprise_exerts/. Thomas, 2006a, "Can we get the Muslim world to alter its opinion of us?," Baltimore Sun, December 27, http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/opinion/oped/bal-

op.thomas27dec27,0,5250031.story.

18 _{Oklahoma Republican Senator Tom Coburn placed a hold on Glassman’s}

confirmation for several months arguing that insufficient oversight of Voice of America and other U.S. international broadcasting efforts had allowed the broadcast of anti-

A final major component of American public diplomacy efforts in the war on terror was an expansion, or retargeting, of international broadcasting and media efforts. The launch of new U.S. government Arabic broadcasting services in the form of Radio Sawa and Alhurra TV are the most notable. Radio Sawa first broadcast on March 23, 2002 as an attempt to attract new, younger Arabic speaking audiences by featuring pop music and lighter programming interspersed with frequent short newscasts. Alhurra began broadcasting on February 14, 2004, featuring a news and information format similar to BBC or NPR, with the intention of countering the perceived extremist bias and incitement of al-Jazeera and other Arabic news networks.19 _{According to some}

measures, questioned by critics but trumpeted by the U.S. government’s Broadcasting Board of Governors responsible for these initiatives, both Radio Sawa and Alhurra TV have shown some initial success.20

Foreign Aid

While terrorism has been described as “propaganda by the deed,” foreign aid efforts have often been called “diplomacy of deeds.” Since 9/11 the efforts of the U.S. Agency for International Development have frequently been justified, increased, retargeted, and publicized (at home and abroad) as measures to improve perceptions of the United States.21 _{As means to change the basic conditions from which terrorism}

arises, or at least which terrorists often exploit, foreign aid and development programs have been emphasized in national security strategies and explicitly highlighted as part

American attitudes and insufficient effort to further American policy goals pursuing regime change in countries such as Iran. Glassman in response argued that American broadcasting efforts should be guided by a pursuit of objectivity to insure the credibility necessary for success.

19 _{Lynch, Voices of the New Arab Public, 19. Shelby, 2004, "U.S. Launches Arabic}

Satellite Television Broadcasts Feb. 14: Alhurrah Aims to Deliver 'Accuracy' and 'Free and Open Debate'," Press Release (February 13), The Coalition Provisional Authority, http://www.cpa-iraq.org/pressreleases/20040214_satellite.html.

20 _{Kaplan, "Hearts, Minds, and Dollars.". Telhami, 2008, "Annual Arab Public Opinion}

Poll," Survey of the Anwar Sadat Chair for Peace and Development at the University of Maryland (March), University of Maryland,

http://www.brookings.edu/events/2008/~/media/Files/events/2008/0414_middle_east/04 14_middle_east_telhami.pdf.

of the logic for winning the long war.22 President Bush and other official representatives prominently mentioned specific aid programs such as money to combat malaria and AIDs, emergency relief in response to the 2004 tsunami in Southeast Asia and the 2005 earthquake in Pakistan, providing the most support to the UN World Food Program, contributing to a wide variety of educational initiatives, and funding the bulk of reconstruction aid for both Iraq and Afghanistan.23

In the first three years after the September 11 attacks, USAID’s budget nearly tripled with more than half of that destined for the Muslim world.24 _{American backed}

programs specifically targeting Islamic populations and groups included: training for moderate activists and mosque leaders; aid supporting the restoration of Muslim holy sites and antiquities; an Arabic version of Sesame Street stressing religious tolerance as well as providing lessons on literacy; curriculum reform programs reaching from rural schools to Islamic universities; book translation projects; and, grants to Islamic think tanks supporting research showing the compatibility of Islam with democracy and human rights.25

Given the use of the military in many force oriented elements of the war on terror, which both puts American troops in situations where they need the support of local populations as well as risks incidents generating much of the negative press driving increasing anti-Americanism, the prominent use of military assets in foreign aid has been promoted as especially important. According to Marine General Wallace Gregson, in a conflict such as this we need to “explain what we’re about here and get it into something that is properly categorized and puts us on the side of the angels in various areas.” To do that he suggested “providing doctors, engineers, dentists,

veterinarians and other aid to enhance the lives of people living in very troubled parts of