Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Sports Team sports, strength and power sports Endurance sports
Psychological
manifestations ⇓ motivation⇑ irritability
⇑ depression ⇑ listlessness ⇑ depression ⇑ sleeping Appetite ⇓ ⇔ Cardiovascular
parameters ⇑ resting, exercise, and recovery heart rate⇑ resting, exercise, and recovery blood
pressure
⇑ ECG abnormalities
⇑ resting bradycardia ⇓ ⇔ exercise heart rate
⇑ ⇔ postexercise heart rate recovery ⇓ ⇔ blood pressure response to exercise Endocrine
system ⇑ cortisol concentration⇓ testosterone concentration
⇓ testosterone/cortisol ratio ⇑ catecholamine concentration ⇑ postexercise hormonal recovery time
⇓ responsiveness to stressors
Miscellaneous ⇓ muscle and liver glycogen stores
Variable exercise-induced lactate responses
⇑ hypoglycemia during exercise ⇓ exercise and postexercise lactate concentrations
Fatigue Chronic ⇑
Performance ⇓ ⇔ ⇓ ⇔
Note: ⇑ = increased, ⇓ = decreased, ⇔ = no change; ECG = electrocardiograph.
Adapted from Stone et al. 1988 (148), Fry et al. 1991 (50), Stone et al. 2007 (151), and Mackinnon & Hooper 2000 (102).
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102
Note: Due to rights limitations, this item has been removed. The material can be found in its original source. From L.T. Mackinnon and S.L. Hooper, 2000, Overtraining and overreaching: causes, effects, and
prevention. In Exercise and sport science, edited by W.E. Garrett and D.T. Kirkendall (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins), 487-498.
Human
only resting values (117). Therefore, it may be warranted for athletes to wear inexpensive heart rate monitors during the night to determine their average noc- turnal heart rate. Nocturnal heart rate values can be graphed in a time-series fashion and compared with training volumes, allowing the coach to detect overtraining (figure 5.5).
Athletes also can use a series of scales to evaluate their mood (102) and total quality of recovery (82). The Profile of Mood States (POMS) has been used to identify athletes who are predisposed to overtraining (8, 67, 121). The total quality of recovery (TQR) scale is another sub- jective tool that appears to be useful in monitoring overtraining (82). This scale emphasizes the athlete’s perception of fatigue and recovery, ultimately increas- ing self-awareness of recovery. Although both the POMS and the TQR scale are useful tools, they are probably best used as part of a comprehensive testing program that is undertaken across the different mesocycles of the training plan.
Sample time series graphs for heart rate and body weight changes can be found on page 119, while sample graphs
Figure 5.4 Vertical jump performed on a portable
force platform.
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 80 60 40 20 0 Untrained Standing Well trained Overtrained Recovery Lying Mor ning hear t r at e (beats/min) Month
E4492/Bompa/Periodization,5E/333164/Fig 05.05/Tammy Page/R3-alw
Figure 5.5 Effects of training and overtraining on early morning lying and standing
heart rates.
Adapted from W. Czajkowski, 1982, A simple method to control fatigue in endurance training. In Exercise and
sports biology, international series on sports sciences Vol. 12, edited by P.V. Komi (Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics), 210. By permission of P. Komi.
R ep ri nt ed , by pe rm is si on , fr om J. H . S to ne , M . S to ne , an d W .A . S an ds , 20 07 , Pr in ci p le s an d p ra ct ic e o f r es is ta nc e t ra in in g ( C ha m pa ig n, I L: H um an K in et ic s) , 1 91 .
Human
Kinetics
of quality and duration of sleep, sensation of tiredness, willingness to training, appetite, and muscle soreness can be found on page 122. Coaches and athletes are encouraged to make their own forms to address individual athlete needs. However a blank form has been included on page 121 to assist in the monitoring process.
RecoveRy theoRy
Recovery or regeneration is a multifactoral process that requires the coach and
athlete to understand the physiological makeup of the athlete, the physiological effects of both training and recovery interventions, and the effects of integrating training and recovery strategies. A coach or athlete who understands these concepts can apply recovery interventions or training plan modifications to maximize train- ing outcomes.
Restoration occurs at several different distinct phases: (a) interexercise recovery,
(b) postexercise recovery, and (c) long-term recovery (140, 180).
Interexercise recovery occurs during the exercise bout and relates to the bioenergetics
of the activity being undertaken. Fatigue during an exercise bout is partially related to the amount of available phosphagens. Muscular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) concentrations do not decrease by more than 45% in response to intense exercise (1, 65, 81). ATP levels are maintained as a result of the creation of ATP via the phospha- gen, glycolytic, and oxidative energy systems. To maintain muscle ATP stores, phos- phocreatine (PCr) can be decreased by 50% to 70% in as little as 5 s of high-intensity exercise and can be almost completely depleted with very intense exhaustive exercise (65, 81). Approximately 70% restoration of ATP occurs in about 30 s, whereas 3 to 5 min of recovery is needed to completely resynthesize ATP (70). Approximately 84% of PCr stores are restored in 2 min, 89% in 4 min, and 100% in 8 min (58, 70, 72). Phosphagens are replenished mainly via the use of aerobic metabolism (58), but fast glycolysis can contribute to recovery after high-intensity exercise (42, 58).
Postexercise recovery occurs after the cessation of exercise and is related to the removal
of metabolic by-products, the replenishment of energy stores, and the initiation of tissue repair (76, 140). After the cessation of exercise the body does not immediately return to a resting state. This phenomenon is best illustrated by the elevation in oxygen consumption known as excess postexercise oxygen consumption (EPOC), seen in response to a bout of exercise (88). The magnitude and duration of EPOC are mediated by the physiological disturbance (intensity, duration, or combination) created by the exercise bout. Thus, the greater the physiological disturbance created, the larger the EPOC. Mild aerobic exercise results in a markedly smaller EPOC that reaches preexercise levels within a few minutes to several hours depending on the duration of exercise. Conversely, high-intensity anaerobic exercise such as resistance training results in a very large EPOC than can last as long as 38 hr before resting levels are achieved (88, 106). Several factors are responsible for elevating the amount of postexercise oxygen consumption: ATP and PCr resynthesis, muscle glycogen formation from lactate, oxidation of lactate to form energy, restoration of oxygen content of myoglobin and blood, thermogenic effects of elevated core temperature, thermogenic effects of hormones, and effects of elevated heart rate, ventilation, and other physiological functions (105).
Of particular interest to the coach and athlete is the restoration of muscle glycogen attributable to the link between glycogen metabolism and exercise intensity (32). Both aerobic and anaerobic exercise can significantly decrease muscle glycogen stores (54, 105). After the cessation of exercise, muscle glycogen restoration is directly related to
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the amount of carbohydrate consumed in the diet (35). If dietary carbohydrate intake is inadequate, the athlete’s ability to recover from training sessions will decline, pos- sibly resulting in overtraining (142). Muscle glycogen usually is restored within 20 to 24 hr of recovery (38). If inadequate carbohydrate content is present in the diet or muscle damage is excessive, muscle glycogen will be resynthesized at a slower rate, thus increasing the time needed for recovery (34, 35). Athletes do not always have 24 hr to recover before the next training session, competition, or other physical activity that requires muscle glycogen. Therefore, the athlete must maintain adequate dietary carbohydrate intake and supplement the diet with carbohydrates in the 2 hr after exercise to maximize muscle glycogen restoration.
Long-term recovery that is part of a well-planned periodized training plan can result
in a supercompensation effect. Long-term recovery culminates with the peaking por- tion of the periodized training plan. The larger the training stimulus, the greater the accumulation of fatigue and the development of fitness, which will oppose each other and thus decrease the athlete’s preparedness (figure 5.1) (151). When the athlete experiences a sudden increase in training volume or intensity, performance is signifi- cantly reduced as the result of the accumulation of fatigue (56, 151). If the athlete then returns to normal training, an increase in performance is noted and in some instances a supercompensation effect occurs. These effects have been noted in weight- lifters (48, 148), cyclists (56), track athletes (162), and collegiate throwers (150) who are undergoing a period of concentrated loading or overreaching phase of training. The time required for restoration or supercompensation of performance depends on the magnitude of the concentrated loading phase (figure 5.6). Additional factors that can delay training effects include the design of the training plan, the training status of the athlete, the implementation of restorative methods, and dietary intake.