Targeted energy system Average work time (s) Work-to-rest ratio
ATP-Pc 5-10 1:12-1:20
Fast glycolysis 15-30 1:3-1:5
Fast and slow glycolysis and oxidative metabolism 60-180 1:3-1:4
oxidative metabolism >180 2:1-1:3
Adapted, by permission, from nScA, 2000, Bioenergetics of Exercise Training, by M. conley. In Essentials of strength
training and conditioning, edited by T.r. Baechle and r.W. Earle (champaign, IL: Human Kinetics) 78.
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the relative volume is 120 min; the relative density of the training session would be calculated as follows:
Relative density = 102 3 100 = 85%
120
This calculated percentage suggests that the athlete worked 85% of the time. Although the relative density has some value to the athlete and coach, the absolute density of training is more important. The absolute density can be defined as the ratio between the effective work an athlete performs and the absolute volume. The absolute density or effective work is calculated by subtracting the volume of rest intervals from the absolute volume using the following equation:
Absolute density = (Absolute volume – Volume of rest intervals) 3 100Absolute volume
Let’s say that the volume of rest intervals is 26 min and the absolute load is 102 min. The absolute density would then be calculated as follows:
Absolute density = (102 – 26) 3 100 = 74.5%
102
These calculations indicate that the absolute density of training was 74.5%. Because training density is a factor of intensity, the index of absolute density could be consid- ered medium intensity (see table 4.1). Determining the relative and absolute density of training can be useful for establishing effective training sessions.
ComplexiTy
Complexity refers to the degree of sophistication and biomechanical difficulty of
a skill. The performance of more complex skills in training can increase training intensity. Learning a complex skill may require extra work, in comparison to basic skills, especially if the athlete possesses inferior neuromuscular coordination or is not fully concentrating on the acquisition of the skill. Assigning complex skills to several individuals who have no previous experience with the skill discriminates quickly between well-conditioned and poorly conditioned athletes. Therefore, the more complex an exercise or skill, the greater the athlete’s individual differences and mechanical efficiencies.
The complexity of previously learned skills may impose physiological stress even though the skills have been mastered. For example, Eniseler (25) demonstrated that heart rate and lactate accumulation are higher with tactical training compared with technical training in soccer players. In that study, the technical portion of the training session centered on skill practice without the presence of an opponent. The addition of an opponent during tactical training significantly increased the complexity of the drills and thus increased heart rate and lactate production. Additionally, when simulated games were undertaken, the complexity of the activities increased again, resulting in a concomitant increase in heart rate and lactate production. The highest heart rates and lactate levels were seen in actual games. In light of this information, the coach should consider the physiological stress of the different portions of the training session in the context of the complexity of the skills or activities used.
index of oVerall demand
Volume, intensity, density, and complexity all affect the overall demand an athlete
encounters in training. Although these factors may complement each other, an
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increased emphasis on one factor may cause an increased demand on the athlete if the emphasis on the other factors is not adjusted. For instance, if the coach intends to maintain the same demand in training, and the needs of the sport require developing high-intensity endurance, the volume of training must increase. When increasing the volume, the coach must consider how this increase will affect the density of training and how much the intensity of training must be decreased.
The planning and direction of training are the primary functions of manipula- tions of volume, intensity, and complexity. The coach must guide the evolution of the curve of these components, especially volume and intensity, in direct relationship with the athlete’s index of adaptation, phase of training, and competition schedule. The appropriate integration of these factors in the annual training plan will enhance the athlete’s ability to peak at the appropriate times, thus resulting in optimal per- formances at these times.
The overall demand of a training plan can be calculated with the index of overall
demand (IOD) (41). The IOD can be calculated with the equation proposed by Iliuta
and Dumitrescu (41):
Index of overall demand = OI 3 AD 3 AV10, 000
For example, say the OI (overall intensity) is 63.8%, the AD (absolute density) is 74.5%, and the AV (absolute volume) is 102 min. The OI, AD, and AV can be substituted into the IOD equation as follows:
Index of overall demand = 63.8% 3 74.5% 3 102 = 48.510, 000
In this example, the IOD of training is very low, slightly less than 50%.
summary of major ConCepTs
The amount of work encountered in training is a key variable in the success of a training plan. A large amount of work that encompasses and integrates physical, technical, and tactical training is essential to stimulate the physiological adaptations that serve as the foundation for improvements in athletic performance. The applica- tion of workload should be individualized because each athlete has a tolerance to the volume, intensity, and density of training.
The workload encountered in training has progressively increased over the past 50 years, with athletes now undertaking multiple training sessions a day and accu- mulating many hours of training within the microcycle. Athletes must progressively increase their training volume, intensity, and density across their athletic careers. If these factors are increased too sharply or too soon, overtraining likely will occur. Thus, an athlete’s increase in workload should be individualized and progressive.
The coach must monitor training loads and performance measures to determine the effectiveness of the training plan. The coach should quantify the density of a training session or complexity of the skills practiced to account for the workload in tactical and technical training. One useful tool that has gained popularity in many sports (e.g., soccer, rugby) is heart rate monitoring, which is used to quantify train- ing and competitive intensities. The coach should monitor factors that increase the workload or training stress and coordinate them with recovery and restoration. The coach also should consider restoration techniques and the time needed to restore energy stores (see chapter 5 for more information).
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