In English we can, to a limited degree, use the definite article with an adjective to form a noun-equivalent: only the good die young; only the brave deserve the fair. In Greek, however, the definite article can be used to create a noun-equivalent out of virtually any part of speech (adjective, adverb, prepositional phrase,
infinitive) to which it is prefixed: ὁ σο ός the wise [man]; ἡ σο ή the wise [woman]; οἱ τότε the then [men] i.e. the men of that time; οἱ νῦν the now [men] i.e. the men of
today; οἱ ἐν τῇ οἰκίᾳ the [men] in the house (the last three examples can also mean
the [people] …, as Greek uses the masculine article to refer to mixed groups). The neuter singular article is used with adjectives to express abstractions: τὸ καλόν
beauty, τὸ αἰσχρόν ugliness. When prefixed to an infinitive (articular infinitive, i.e. article + infinitive) it forms an equivalent of verbal nouns in English: τὸ λέγειν the [act
of] speaking, speech; τὸ εύγειν the [act of] fleeing, flight. Each of these noun- equivalents functions exactly like any normal noun, and the case of the article (and of an accompanying adjective) varies according to a particular context: έρω τὸν κακόν I am carrying the cowardly [man]; περὶ τοῦ παιδεύειν ἔλεγεν he was speaking
about the [act of] educating i.e. about education; ἐδιώκομεν τοὺς ἐν τῇ νήσῳ we were
chasing the [men] in the island.
Another very common type of noun-phrase consists of the neuter plural of the definite article followed by a genitive. Here the article may be translated in a wide variety of ways. Thus τὰ τῶν Ἀθηναίων (lit. the [things] of the Athenians) can mean
the property/situation/condition/fortunes/interests, etc., of the Athenians; τὰ ἐν τῇ Ῥώμῃ the things/events/circumstances, etc. in Rome. The context must
determine the most appropriate rendering.
The article can also be used as a third person pronoun when combined with the particles μὲν* … δέ; ὁ μὲν … ὁ δέ the one … the other (one man … another); οἱ μὲν
… οἱ δέ some … others: ὁ μὲν διώκει τὴν δόξαν, ὁ δὲ τὸ ἀργύριον one man chases fame,
another money; οἱ μὲν ἀπέθνῃσκον, οἱ δὲ ἔ ευγον some were dying, others running
away. ὁ δέ but/and he (and οἱ δέ etc.) when used by itself refers to someone
mentioned in the preceding sentence other than its subject: ὁ Σωκράτης ἐκέλευσε τὴν Ξανθίππην κροῦσαι τὴν μυῖαν· ἡ δὲ οὐκ ἤθελεν Socrates ordered Xanthippe to swat the
fly but she refused (lit. was not willing). This use of the article is a survival from an earlier stage in Greek when it was employed solely as a third person pronoun (cf.
25.1/3a) We have already met three usages of the article in Greek where there is no corresponding article in English (2.1/2 note 1). There is also one important instance where the reverse holds true, viz where the noun or adjective is predicative. Thus, when Thucydides (6.2.11)) is telling us that originally the Athenians called the Acropolis simply ‘the polis’, he writes καλεῖται (3rd s. pres. ind. passive) ἡ Ἀκρόπολις ἔτι πόλις the Acropolis is still called ‘the polis’, but there is no article with πόλις. In such sentences, therefore, there should be no doubt as to which word is the subject and which is the complement.
Notes
1 Adjectives without the definite article can also be used as nouns but they then have an indefinite sense: ἐν τῷ πολέμῳ πολλοὶ κακὰ ἔ ερον in the war many
[people] were suffering hardships (lit. bad things). When used indefinitely in the singular an adjective is normally accompanied by the indefinite pronoun τις (10.1/1).
2 In expressions such as Ἀλκιβιάδης ὁ Κλεινίου Alcibiades, [son] of Cleinias the article is followed by the genitive and the word for son or daughter is omitted (cf. 23.1/1a). As Greeks, both male and female, had only one name, the name of a person’s father is often given in this way to achieve greater precision.
Insight
The only Greek god who had a name with cognates in other Indo-European languages (cf. 1.3) and so could, in a sense, claim to be genuinely Greek was Zeus (Ζεύς; cf. Sanskrit Dyaus), whom Homer calls ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν τε θεῶν τε (ruler of
gods and men). The many other divinities worshipped, or at least
acknowledged, by the Greeks seem to have been adopted from other cultures. However, they were all brought into some relationship with Zeus so as to form a family unit. The most recent newcomer of any importance was Dionysus
(Διόνῡσος), the god of wine, who was transformed into one of Zeus’ many children born, so to speak, out of wedlock. In historic times, after the Greek pantheon had been established, a foreign god was simply equated with a Greek divinity whose functions were similar. In this way Ammon, the chief god of the Egyptians, was identified with Zeus.
5.2 Greek reading
1 ὁ χρόνος παιδεύει τοὺς σο ούς. 2 πόλλ᾿ ἔχει σιωπὴ καλά.
3 πόλλ᾿ ἔστιν ἀνθρώποισιν, ὦ ξένοι, κακά. 4 οὐ δεῖ έρειν τὰ πρόσθεν ἐν μνήμῃ κακά.
5 Supply ἐστί in the following: (i) καλὸν ἡσυχία. (ii) χαλεπὰ τὰ καλά. (iii) μέτρον ἄριστον. (iv) μέγα βιβλίον μέγα κακόν. (v) κοινὰ τὰ τῶν ίλων. (vi) κοινὸς Ἑρμῆς. (vii) μικρὸν κακὸν μέγα ἀγαθόν. (viii) ἄλλα ἄλλοις καλά. (ix) ἡ γλῶττα πολλῶν αἰτία κακῶν. (x) χαλεπὸν τὸ ποιεῖν, τὸ δὲ κελεῦσαι ῥᾴδιον. (xi) κακὸν τὸ μεθύειν πημονῆς λυτήριον. (xii) παθήματα μαθήματα. (xiii) κακοῦ κόρακος κακὸν ᾠόν. (xiv) πιστὸν γῆ, ἄπιστον θάλαττα. (xv) κἀν μύρμηκι χολή.
6 (i) δεῖ γαμεῖν ἐκ τῶν ὁμοίων. (ii) μῶρος μῶρα λέγει. (iii) ἔξω πηλοῦ τὸν πόδα ἔχεις. (iv) ζεῖ χύτρα, ζῇ ιλία. (v) λέοντα ξυρεῖς. (vi) πρὸς σῆμα μητρυιᾶς κλαίεις.
7 εῦ εῦ, τὰ μεγάλα μεγάλα καὶ πάσχει κακά. 8 ὄνου χρείαν ἐλέγχει τραχύτης ὁδοῦ.
9 ἄνθρωπός ἐστι πνεῦμα καὶ σκιὰ μόνον. 10 τύχη τέχνην ὤρθωσεν, οὐ τέχνη τύχην.
11 πολλῶν τὰ χρήματ᾿ αἰτί᾿ ἀνθρώποις κακῶν. 12 γύναι, γυναιξὶ κόσμον ἡ σιγὴ έρει. 13 καλὸν δὲ καὶ γέροντι μανθάνειν σο ά. 14 οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι Θουκυδίδην τὸν Ὀλόρου ἔπεμψαν πρὸς τὸν στρατηγὸν τῶν ἐν Θρᾴκῃ. 15 οὔτε παρὰ νεκροῦ ὁμιλίαν οὔτε παρὰ ιλαργύρου χάριν δεῖ ζητεῖν. 16 ἱκανὸν τὸ νικᾶν ἐστι τοῖς ἐλευθεροῖς. 17 κἀν τοῖς ἀγροίκοις ἐστὶ παιδείας ἔρως. 18 ὁ λύκος τὴν τρίχα, οὐ τὴν γνώμην, ἀλλάττει. 19 τὰ χρήματ᾿ ἀνθρώποισιν εὑρίσκει ίλους. 20 αῦλος κριτὴς καλοῦ πράγματος ὄχλος.
21 The Egyptians and their crocodiles (from Herodotus)
μὲν οὖν τῶν Αἰγυπτίων ἱεροί εἰσιν οἱ κροκόδιλοι, τοῖς δ᾿ οὔ, ἀλλ᾿ ἅτε πολεμίους περιέπουσιν. οἱ δὲ περί τε Θήβας καὶ τὴν Μοίρεως (of Moeris) λίμνην σ όδρα νομίζουσιν αὐτοὺς εἶναι ἱερούς. ἕνα (one) δὲ ἑκάτεροι τρέ ουσι κροκόδιλον καὶ διδάσκουσιν, ἀρτήματα δὲ λίθινα χυτὰ εἰς τὰ ὦτα ἐμβάλλουσι καὶ ἀμ ιδέας περὶ τοὺς ἐμπροσθίους πόδας καὶ σιτία ἀπότακτα παρέχουσι καὶ ἱερεῖα. ἕως μὲν οὖν ζῶσιν οἱ κροκόδιλοι μάλ᾿ εὖ πάσχουσιν, μετὰ δὲ τὸν θάνατον ταριχεύουσιν αὐτοὺς οἱ Αἰγύπτιοι καὶ θάπτουσιν ἐν ἱεραῖς θήκαις. ἀλλ᾿ οἱ περὶ Ἐλε αντίνην πόλιν (city) καὶ ἐσθίουσιν αὐτούς· οὐ γὰρ νομίζουσιν ἱεροὺς εἶναι.
Notes
2 πόλλ᾿ = πολλά (also in 3) 2.1/6b.3 ἀνθρώποισιν dat. pl.; -οισιν is the longer form of the ending (3.1/1 note 3).
4 Take τὰ πρόσθεν … κακά together and ἐν μνήμῃ with έρειν; dislocations of this sort are common in verse.
5 (i) καλόν is neuter because the meaning is a fair [thing]; we would have
expected the definite article with ἡσυχία (2.1/2 note 1) – see note on (4.2.3). (iv) here, and in some of the following proverbs, it is necessary to decide which is subject and which is predicate, i.e. is a big book a big evil? or is a big
evil a big book? Obviously the former is what is meant. (vi) An appeal to share in the luck that another is enjoying (e.g. in finding a coin in the street); Hermes, as god of luck, shares, or should share, his blessings equally. (viii) ἄλλα ἄλλοις … lit. other [things] … to other [people], i.e. different [things] … to different
people. (xiv) πιστόν, ἄπιστον cf. καλόν in (i). (xv) κἀν = καὶ ἐν (crasis 11.1/5); καί here means even (4.1/3).
6 (iv) ζεῖ < ζέω boil, ζῇ < ζάω live (the latter is irregular – 5.1/2 note 4).
7 Prose order would be τὰ μεγάλα καὶ πάσχει μεγάλα κακά; καὶ is here adverbial also (4.1/3); take the second μεγάλα with κακά.
10 Translate ὤρθωσεν by a present; the aorist is often used to express general truths, particularly in proverbs (so-called gnomic aorist; cf. faint heart never
won fair lady).
11 Supply ἐστί (and also in 13 and 20); χρήματ᾿ αἰτί᾿ both have an elided α; the plural of χρῆμα thing here means money (a very common use).
13 δέ cf. note on (4.2.9) (there are many examples of such connectives at the beginning of verse and prose extracts in subsequent reading exercises); καί
even4.1/3.
14 τὸν Ὀλόρου 5.1/3 note 2. 17 κἀν see above on 5 (xv).
19 χρήματ(α) see on 11; ἀνθρώποισιν see note on 3.
20 Only the sense can indicate which noun is subject and which predicate (cf. note on 5(iv)).
21 ll.1f. τοῖς μὲν … τοῖς δέ for some … for others (5.1/3); οὖν connects this passage with what goes before in the original context (cf. 13 above); ἅτε πολεμίους as
enemies; Θῆβαι Thebes not to be confused with the city of the same name in Greece. l.4 Take ἕνα (m. acc. of εἷς (7.1/5)) with κροκόδιλον; ἑκάτεροι each of the
two (i.e. those around Thebes and those around the swamp of Moeris). l.7 οὖν
therefore, so shows that what follows is a consequence of what was said in the previous sentence, while μέν functions with the δέ of the next line to contrast ἕως ζῶσιν … with μετὰ τὸν θάνατον …
5.2/1 Vocabulary
ἄγροικος, -ον from the country, rustic, boorish αἰτίᾱ, -ᾱς, ἡ cause
ἀλλάττω change (tr.)
ἀμ ιδέᾱ, -ᾱς, ἡ bracelet, anklet ἄπιστος, -ον untrustworthy
ἀπότακτος, -ον set apart for special use ἄριστος, -η, -ον best ἄρτημα, -ατος, τό ear-ring ἅτε (particle) as if, as βιβλίον, -ου, τό book γαμέω marry γέρων, -οντος, ὁ old man γλῶττα, -ης, ἡ tongue γνώμη, -ης, ἡ mind γυνή, -αικός, ἡ woman διδάσκω teach, train
ἑκάτερος, -ᾱ -ον each (of two) ἐλέγχω test
Ἐλε αντίνη, -ης, ἡ Elephantine (city in Egypt) ἐμβάλλω put in ἐμπρόσθιος, -ον (in) front
ἔξω (+gen.) outside εὖ (adv.) well
εὑρίσκω find; get ἕως (conj.) while
ζάω be alive, live, pass one’s life ζέω boil
ζητέω look for, seek (+acc.) ἡσυχίᾱ, -ᾱς, ἡ peace, quiet
Θῆβαι, -ῶν, αἱ Thebes (city in Egypt) θήκη, -ης, ἡ tomb Θρᾴκη, -ης, ἡ Thrace θρίξ, τριχός, ἡ hair ἱερεῖα, -ων, τά offerings ἱερός, -ά, -όν sacred, holy ἱκανός, -ή, -όν sufficient κλαίω weep κοινός, -ή, -όν common, shared κόραξ, -ακος, ὁ crow κόσμος, -ου, ὁ decoration κροκόδῑλος, -ου, ὁ crocodile λίθινος, -η, -ον (χυτός) made of glass λύκος, -ου, ὁ wolf λυτήριον, -ου, τό remedy μάθημα, -ατος, τό lesson μάλα (adv.) very μανθάνω learn
μεθύω be drunk
μέτρον, -ου, τό measure, due measure, moderation μητρυιά, -ᾶς, ἡ step-mother
μικρός, -ά, -όν small, μνήμη, -ης, ἡ memory μόνον (adv.) only, merely μύρμηξ, -ηκος, ὁ ant μῶρος, -ᾱ, -ον, stupid, foolish νικάω win ξυρέω shave ὁδός, -οῦ, ἡ road ὅμοιος, -ᾱ, -ον like ὀρθόω guide οὖς, ὠτός, τό ear ὄχλος, -ου, ὁ crowd, mob πάθημα -ατος, τό suffering, misfortune παιδείᾱ, -ᾱς, ἡ education, culture παιδεύω teach, educate
παρά (prep.) (+gen.) from
πάσχω suffer; εὖ πάσχω be well treated περί (prep.) (+acc.) around
περιέπω treat πηλός, -οῦ, ὁ mud πημονή, -ῆς, ἡ woe, misery πιστός, -ή, -όν trustworthy πνεῦμα, -ατος, τό breath ποιέω make, do πολέμιος, -ᾱ, -ον hostile, enemy ποῦς, ποδός, ὁ, foot πρᾶγμα, -ατος, τό thing, matter
πρός (prep.) (+acc.) to, towards; on, at πρόσθεν(adv.) previously ῥᾴδιος, -ᾱ, -ον easy σῆμα, -ατος, τό tomb σῑγή, -ῆς, ἡ silence σῑτία, -ων, τά provisions, food σιωπή, -ῆς, ἡ silence σκιά, -ᾶς, ἡ shadow σο ός, -ή, -όν wise, clever
στρατηγός, -οῦ, ὁ general, commander ταριχεύω embalm, mummify
τραχύτης, -ητος, ἡ roughness τρέ ω rear
αῦλος, -ον (also -η, -ον) poor, inadequate εῦ (interjection) alas! ιλάργυρος, -ον avaricious, miserly χαλεπός, -ή, -όν difficult, hard χάρις, -ιτος (acc. χάριν), ἡ favour χολή, -ῆς, ἡ bile; anger χρείᾱ, -ᾱς, ἡ use, serviceability χρῆμα, -ατος, τό thing; (pl.) money χρόνος, -ου, ὁ time
χυτός, -ή, όν melted (with λίθινος, made of glass) χύτρᾱ, -ᾱς, ἡ pot ᾠόν, -οῦ, τό egg
Main points
• The third declension contains masculine, feminine and neuter nouns; in most subgroups the genitive singular must be learnt to discover a noun’s stem • The third declension has consonant stems in palatals, labials and dentals (including -ντ) • Contracted verbs end in -άω, -έω, -όω
• The definite article is used to turn an adjective, infinitive or phrase into a noun- equivalent • ὁ μὲν … ὁ δέ means the one … the other