El Pacto Andino: inicios del debate internacional sobre la comunicación

As water evaporates from the filter, the clay particles move closer together, causing the filter to shrink. The finer the clay particle size, the more water there is between the pores, so the more the clay will shrink. Warping and cracking during drying is the result of stress caused by unequal shrinkage: when the surface dries more quickly than the interior of the filter walls or when one section of the filter dries more quickly than the other (Figure 5-9). Often cracks and warping caused by uneven drying do not show up until after the filter has been fired (Section 6.8.10). Nonplastic particles, such as sand or grog, reduce shrinkage and aid in even drying because they absorb less water than the surrounding clay, dry out more easily, and create channels that help moisture escape to the surface (Hamer and Hamer 2004). The amount and the absorbency of the burn-out material will also influence even drying and the amount of shrinkage.

At Indo-2, a by-product from the production of coconut cooking oil is used as a mold

release. It is melted in a bucket and stays liquid all day; the oil is applied to the

mold with a sponge.

In Nigeria, they found that putting the filter mixture into the mold in one piece, rather than in pieces, helped with the

uniformity of the filter structure.

Filters can take three days to three weeks to dry depending on the weather conditions. Filters should be monitored throughout the drying process to ensure they are drying evenly. Since drying filters slowly and evenly is particularly important, filters should be placed in an area with controllable conditions protected from wind, direct sun, and rain. Ideally, filters should be allowed to dry in a damp, humid room. If a damp room is not available, filters can be covered with plastic bags that are

gradually removed, allowing for slow and even drying. Drying filters on shelves made of slats allows for better air circulation and more even drying. If filters dry too slowly, mold can develop and leave unattractive marks that do not fire out.

Once the clay particles are touching, although the clay is still wet, the majority of drying shrinkage has taken place. Potters refer to this as the “leather-hard” stage. At this stage, which is about halfway between wet and dry, filters can be moved and handled with less chance of distortion but will not be too dry to resist changes made to the surface. For these reasons, the “leather-hard” stage is the optimal time for surface finishing, as well as for the

application of identifying stamps, although filters should still be handled carefully and as little as possible.

Any surface finishing that may be required should be carried out when the filter is leather-hard to ensure the rim is strong and the surface is even. Wrinkles or crease marks left from the plastic bags used to separate the filter from the mold should be smoothed out as they could develop into full-fledged cracks during the firing. Small voids can be filled in with wet filter mixture. Some factories roughen up the outer surface of the filter with a hacksaw blade to counteract the compression caused by the smoothing.

The final step in surface finishing is to stamp each filter with a batch number, serial number, and logo. A simple numbering system is to have one batch equivalent to one firing, so all the filters in a kiln load will have the same batch number and a sequential serial number. Once a filter has been labeled with a batch and serial number it should recorded in the production log along with the following information: mixture batch, date of pressing, weight of mixture put in press, date of surface finishing, plus additional observations including weather, drying conditions, and visual appearance. A sample form is included in

Annex G.

Once surface finishing is complete, the filter is again left to dry gradually, although, at this point, slow drying is less critical. Potters can usually tell when clay is dry because it will get lighter in both weight and color, and wet clay is much colder to the touch.

Dryness can also be measured by comparing the weight of a filter with the weight of a known dry filter. Filters that are dry or nearly

dry should never be patched; if any defects are observed they should not be corrected, instead, the filter should be destroyed.

Indo-2 dries filters on rolling racks; when filters are nearly

dry, the racks are moved closer to the kiln so the

warmth from the kiln accelerates the drying

process.

Figure 5-9: Uneven Drying (Source unknown)

SL-2 has converted a large kiln into a drying room and warms it to 45°C for 2 days using leftover charcoal from

Throughout the drying process, filters should be inspected visually for cracks, deformation, warping, holes, large pieces of burn-out material, and even wall thickness. Filters that do not pass visual inspection should be destroyed and the filter mixture should not be reused to make other filters, but rather, can be used to seal the kiln door or for nonfilter-making purposes. Reason(s) for rejection and other observations should be recorded

in the filter log.

Drying time can be a limiting factor in filter production and will be affected by the weather; therefore, production should be scheduled so that the facility can meet demand throughout different weather conditions. Because filters will take more time to dry during the rainy season, an increased number of drying racks may be

necessary to maintain the rate of production. If there is sufficient storage and kiln capacity, production can be increased during the dry season. Although production capacity is not strictly a quality issue, rushed or incomplete drying can become a quality control issue.

Clay can be artificially dried successfully in traditional pottery production and some factories have experimented with artificially drying filters from a wet stage. This is not recommended since the internal pore structure of the filter may be affected if filters are dried too quickly. However, once filters reach the leather-hard stage, fans can be used to ventilate the

workshop. Increasing air flow reduces humidity, which aids in drying. Fans should not blow air directly on the filters and should be cycled: on for 3-4 minutes and then off for 15-20 minutes. This allows water to migrate out of the drying filters and is less likely to cause cracking than constantly operating fans (Cohen 2010b).

Once filters are in the final stages of drying, they can be moved near to a kiln that is being fired, or even placed inside a warm kiln. Ideally, filters should be completely dry before firing. If this is not possible because of the climate, “close-to-dry” filters can be heated in a kiln to no more than 100°C for 4 or more hours. If the temperature remains below the boiling point of water, moisture will evaporate, not boil, out of the pores, thus drying the filters. Alternatively, the stacked kiln can be heated to 100°C the night before, closed up, and left overnight. The kiln walls should retain enough heat to dry the filters overnight.

5.10 Recommendations

Based on the knowledge summarized in the previous sections, the following recommendations are made to filter manufacturers by the Working Group:

1) Before a factory is established, the production manager should visit a fully functioning filter factory.

2) An experienced filter technician and local potters should be involved when setting up a factory and developing the mixture ratio.

3) The appropriate clay:burn-out ratio should be determined at project outset, and used consistently throughout production. If the ratio is changed, the filter efficacy must be confirmed.

In Nigeria, locally made convection ovens can dry

filters in 2 hours; however filters are

usually left to dry naturally.

4) To confirm clay:burn-out ratio, a minimum of 9 prototype filters from 3 different batches should be tested; these prototypes should achieve a 99% (2-log) reduction of

microbiological indicators.

5) Effluent water from prototype filters should be tested for heavy metals and inorganic chemicals before starting production.

6) Raw materials should be measured by weight, not volume, and burn-out material should be dehydrated before weighing it for use in filter mixture.

7) A mortar mixer operating at 40-50 rpms is recommended.

8) Mixed dry materials should be inspected visually for even distribution of clay and burn- out before adding water. Wet filter mixture should also be inspected visually to confirm even mixing.

9) The filter mixture should be processed through a pug mill, if available. Filter mixture should be wedged or kneaded before pressing.

10) A standard weight of filter mixture should be used to press each filter. 11) Filters should be pressed the same day the filter mixture is prepared.

12) Filters manufactured from the same batch of filter mixture should be kept together throughout production and fired in the same kiln load.

13) A press with a high-quality mold should be used to press the filter into shape and, to prevent warping, the filter should be handled as little as possible after pressing. 14) Filters should be stored in conditions that allow for slow and even drying. They should

be protected from direct sun, wind, and rain. Artificial drying from the wet stage is not recommended.

15) Once leather-hard, each filter should be stamped with a batch number, serial number, and logo. Surface finishing may be carried out at this stage.

16) A detailed production log should be maintained that documents the manufacturing process for each filter.

17) Filters should be inspected visually after pressing and periodically throughout the drying process for deformation, uneven drying, and cracks or holes.

18) Once beyond the leather-hard stage, filters should never be patched. Rejected filters should be destroyed and the mixture should not be reused to make filters.

19) Health and safety guidelines should be strictly enforced. Facemasks should be worn by anyone exposed to airborne particles.

5.11 Areas for Further Research

The following areas require further research in order to refine recommendations for best practice in ceramic water filter production:

1) How does storing prepared filter mixture before pressing affect filter characteristics or performance? For example, does sawdust expand and thus increase pore size? Is plasticity increased?

2) What are the impacts on filter effectiveness, if any, of including dried, unfired filters that have been pulverized and screened in new batches of filter mixture? If this process is found to be acceptable, is there a maximum percentage of reprocessed material that can be safely introduced to the mixture batch without compromising filter

effectiveness?

3) What is the acceptable range of clay:burn-out ratios for each of the various burn-out materials, taking into consideration the relationship between flow rate and

microbiological effectiveness? How is the ratio affected by different clay characteristics?

4) Is there a visual indicator that can be added to the burn-out material to aid in evaluating thorough mixing but that does not impact filter effectiveness?

5) How does the size and shape of the filter element (rounded vs. flat bottomed shape, size variations such as diameter, depth, volume, and wall thickness) affect the strength, hydraulic properties, and biological effectiveness? Is there an optimal design for filter size and shape for different circumstances?

6) How do process variables such as hand vs. mechanical mixing, the amount of pressure applied during pressing, or the use of a pug mill affect pore structure and fired filter strength?

5.12 Chapter Details

The information for this chapter was collated by Lisa Ballantine and expanded upon and edited by Justine Rayner. Two conference calls were held to discuss topics in this chapter.

Participants on the first call included: Mike, Justine, Daniele, Robert, Susan, Lisa, Tracy, and Vinka. Participants on the second call included: Burt, Robert, Mike, Lisa, Tracy, Justine, and Daniele.

6 Variables: Kilns and Firing