Una proyección desde el Movimiento Obrero

Packaging will vary depending on locally available materials and whether filters are packaged individually or for bulk sale or distribution. All ceramic filtering elements should be packaged in a plastic bag to prevent

contamination. If taps are detached from the receptacle for ease of stacking for transport, they should be packaged in a plastic bag and clear instructions on how to attach the tap should be provided or it should be attached by someone properly trained to do so at the destination.

Thirst-Aid Myanmar factories ship an extra 5% to accommodate for breakage but have found that fewer than 2% break

during transport.

One of the Myanmar factories recently switched their packaging from baskets to cardboard boxes. Although the

boxes are easier to stack and NGOs think they look better,

they are not as practical because they get soggy when wet and baskets can be reused

Factories use a variety of packaging materials. The DR factory reported that popcorn did not prevent breakage, but factories reported success with newspaper, bubble wrap, styro-foam, cardboard separators, and wild grass. Waste material from local industries such as straw, rubber scraps, or shredded paper from a notebook factory can also be used as long as it is not a potential source of contamination.

For individual sale, elements can be packaged directly in the receptacle or in a cardboard box that is the same size as the filtering element. The chance of the filter breaking will be reduced if it cannot move inside the box. Although some factories acquire used boxes, Nica- 1 and one factory in Myanmar have their name and logo printed on purchased boxes. For bulk sale or distribution five or six filters can be packaged together. If filters are stacked, spacers should be used to reduce the risk of cracking and breaking. Filters can be packaged in crates, cardboard boxes, or locally available baskets. Well packaged filters will have enough padding that they do not move inside the container when shaken, if there is movement, they will be more likely to break.

Figure 9-2: Packaged Filters, Myanmar (Thirst-Aid 2009) Figure 9-3: Packaging Filters, Nicaragua (Rayner 2006) Figure 9-4: Packaging Filters, Honduras (Hernandez 2009)

9.7 Recommendations

Based on the knowledge summarized in the previous sections, the following recommendations are made to filter manufacturers by the Working Group:

1) Receptacles should be large enough to hold at least as much water as the filter element before the water level in the receptacle reaches the bottom of the filter. 2) Plastic receptacles should be of food grade material and clay receptacles should be

coated with colloidal silver diluted to application strength.

3) Lids should fit well enough that insects, dust, and debris cannot gain access to the filter or filtered water.

4) The tap should be of high quality and located as low as possible to maximize water collection but high enough that it will clear a surface the receptacle is placed on. 5) Filter manufacturers should recommend that filter owners wash a new receptacle and

tap with the first three flushes of water from the filter because the first few batches of water will contain a higher concentration of silver, the receptacle and tap could have become contaminated during transport, and the initial water has a bitter taste, which might discourage filter acceptance.

6) Recommendations for cleaning frequency should be as needed or when flow rate slows.

7) The receptacle, tap, and lid should be cleaned when the filtering element is cleaned, and not more frequently, unless needed.

8) O & M instructions should be provided with the filter unit and should include the items listed in this section.

9) Each filter element should be placed in a bag. Packaging materials and methods that minimize breakage should be used.

9.8 Areas for Further Research

The following areas require further research in order to refine recommendations for best practice in ceramic water filter production:

1) How long does the filter element remain effective? What influences the useful life of the filter?

2) Are there cleaning methods that can be implemented at a household level to help unclog pores deep within the filter structure?

9.9 Chapter Details

The information for this chapter was collated by Justine Rayner and edited by Daniele Lantagne.

10 Conclusions

The objective of this project is to provide consensus-based guidelines for local

manufacturing of ceramic water filters. We have worked towards this objective by: 1) forming the Ceramics Manufacturing Working Group; 2) holding conference calls to discuss topics in production; 3) identifying operating filter factories; 4) surveying and documenting existing practice in manufacturing; 5) summarizing knowledge on how filters work; 6) making best practice recommendations; and, 7) identifying areas where further research is needed. This ceramic water filter technology was designed to be manufactured by artisans and to accommodate variation in methods and materials. Filters are currently being produced at 35 independently run factories in 18 countries. Each factory is limited by locally available materials, equipment, and resources. This results in inevitable variation in production. Variations in production occur not only between factories in different countries, but also within each factory. One of the challenges of standardizing the production process is bridging the art of working with clay, a highly intuitive process, with the manufacturing of a reliably effective health tool. Factories adjust their production practices according to their experience, continually trying to improve upon their production process and end product. Despite the tolerance for variation, there are aspects of production that are important to control in order to consistently manufacture a product of sufficient quality that it can be used as a public health intervention to improve the microbiological quality of water and reduce diarrheal disease. Further research is required in many areas as the relationships between and the effects of variables are many and are not clear or well understood.

Despite these limitations, we have worked as a group to define best practice

recommendations for ceramic water filter manufacturing. We have included theory and reasoning behind our recommendations as we hope this information will help factories make manufacturing decisions within the context of their circumstances. It is important that filter quality is evaluated and verified following any change in materials or production. Thorough documentation of materials and daily production will allow factories to monitor and evaluate changes and trace back how each filter was produced. We encourage factories to produce consistent filters through consistent manufacturing methods and establish a quality control program that routinely verifies the quality of the filters they produce.

In the following sections, information from discussions and research has been summarized into: 1) lessons learned; 2) manufacturing recommendations; and, 3) recommended research.