PAFT, COORDINACIÓN ENTRE FECHA DE SOLICITUD Y RETIRO DE RECURSOS

brought  to  this  growing  area  of  research.    

2.2 Studying markets  

Using  the  work  of  the  Market  Studies  group  of  academics,  the  roles  and   abilities  of  things,  as  well  as  people,  within  marketing  practice  are  shown  as   active  in  the  forming  and  shaping  of  a  market.  This  section  starts  to  explore   how  the  activities  undertaken  in  the  site  or  context  of  a  market  have  effects,  in   particular  in  bringing  about  the  marketisation  of  a  new  area  of  society  which   can  in  turn  attempt  to  include  and  configure  societal  concerns  and  

controversies.  

Market  Studies  is  the  scholarly  attention  given  to  a  study  of  the  macro  or   societal  level  systems  or  ‘efforts’  which  configure  markets,  and  it  takes  an   interdisciplinary  influence  from  a  wide  set  of  theories,  including  science,   economics,  psychology  and  sociology,  to  identify  what  or  who  can  structure   and  shape  a  market  (Araujo,  2007;  Geiger  et  al.,  2014).  In  Market  Studies  a   market  is  conceptualised  as  a  system  of  organising  that  exists,  evolves  and  is   maintained  by  the  ‘collective  achievements’  (Roscoe,  2015  p.  198)  of  things  as   well  as  people  through  a  focus  on  practices,  processes  and  the  actors  who   undertake  activities  which  can  bring  a  market  into  being  (ibid).  Within  the   Market  Studies  community,  scholars  have  examined  the  agency  or  action  of  

different  elements  and  their  roles  in  the  organising  of  a  market  (Callon,  2007,   2015;  Mele  et  al.,  2015).  Some  Market  Studies  scholars  employ  a  sociomaterial   perspective  of  performativity,  studying  a  range  of  market  actors,  including   those  providing  and  using  a  service  or  product,  as  well  as  other  actors  such  as   regulatory  bodies  (Neyland  and  Simakova,  2012).  Emphasising  a  sociomaterial   approach  Market  Studies  proposes  attention  is  given  not  to  what  is  readily   observable  or  recognised  as  ‘a  fully-­‐formed  market’  but  the  process  and   practices  behind  the  enactment  and  evolution  of  what  may  become  a  market   (Callon,  1998).  

The  association  and  inclusion  of  the  academic  study  of  marketing  within   Market  Studies,  and  the  ‘reconnection  of  marketing  to  markets’  (Araujo  et  al.,   2010),  is  widely  considered  to  have  emerged  from  the  combined  insights  of  a   group  of  scholars  who  were  concerned  with  both  the  separation  of  marketing   from  markets,  what  they  saw  as  an  increasing  focus  of  the  academic  study  of   marketing  on  consumers,  and  the  parting  of  marketing  theory  from  marketing   practice  or  the  activities  carried  out  by  marketing  practitioners  (ibid).  These   areas  were  discussed  in  some  detail  by  Araujo  and  Kjellberg  (2009)  and  

provided  a  backdrop  to  the  interest  in  rejoining  marketing  to  markets,  in  part   to  redress  the  lack  of  connection  to  ‘the  market’  in  the  field  of  marketing,   which  Araujo  and  Kjellberg  believed  had  been  largely  obscured  and  neglected   in  both  marketing  theory  and  marketing  practice.  Here  Araujo  and  Kjellberg   argued  that  popular  classifications,  such  as  the  most  recent  definition  by  the   CIM  (The  Chartered  Institute  of  Marketing),  who  advertise  themselves  as  the  

largest  international  professional  body  of  marketers  and  describe  marketing  as  

‘The  management  process  responsible  for  identifying,  anticipating  and   satisfying  customer  requirements  profitably’  (CIM,  2017),  routinely  exclude  a   consideration  of  a  wider  context  in  which  marketing  activities  are  carried  out.  

Thus,  drawing  on  the  early  discussion  of  performativity  what  Market  Studies   facilitates  is  deeper  appreciation  of  the  conditions  in  which  marketing  is   carried  out,  and,  furthermore,  that  marketing  is  a  sociomaterial  practice.  

Market  Studies  offered  a  move  away  from  marketing  thinking,  described  as  

‘techniques  to  regulate  exchange’  (Araujo  and  Kjellberg,  2009  p.196-­‐197),  to  

‘market-­‐ing’  (p.  197),  which  encapsulated  an  understanding  of  the  practice  of   marketing  (ibid).  As  such,  Araujo  and  Kjellberg  (2009)  adopted  a  practice-­‐

based  approach  to  advance  the  study  of  marketing,  also  described  as  the   performativity  programme,  which  aimed  to  combine  marketing,  economic   sociology  and  social  studies  of  science  literature  together  in  ‘Market  Studies’.  

Key  within  this  strand  of  literature  was  a  common  understanding  of  markets  as   the  institution  and  marketing  as  one  of  the  processes  with  an  important  

contribution  which  needed  to  be  examined.  The  importance  of  markets  and   understanding  the  processes  and  practices  which  influence  the  emergence,   maintenance  and  evolution  was  highlighted  in  a  special  issue  of  ‘Consumption   Markets  &  Culture’  which  Geiger,  Kjellberg  and  Spencer  (2012)  introduced  by   explaining  that  Market  Studies  was  ‘based  on  an  understanding  of  markets  not   as  given  but  as  ongoing  socio-­‐technical  enactments  worthy  of  social  scientific   attention’  (p.  134).  The  key  concepts  of  Market  Studies  were  outlined  as  firstly,  

that  markets  have  multiple  versions  which  are  influenced  and  shaped  by   market  practices;  secondly  that  market  actors  organise  processes  and  shape   markets  which  in  turn  shape  market  practices;  and  finally  that  markets  are   continually  changing  and  adapting.  This  explanation  offers  a  clear  direction  for   Market  Studies  centred  around  the  importance  of  practices,  the  market  

shaping  process,  and  the  ability  of  markets  to  change  to  meet  needs.  

Importantly  what  has  emerged  from  the  work  of  the  Market  Studies   community  is  the  suggestion  that  that  the  market  cannot  be  considered  a   neutral  concept,  and  markets  are  brought  into  being  and  continually  evolve   because  of  the  activities  of  many  different  actors.    

In  summary,  what  can  be  offered  from  the  Market  Studies  approach  is  a   contribution  to  the  academic  study  of  marketing  through  the  attention  to  the   complex  entanglement  which  enacts  a  market.  Market  Studies  provides  context   and  generates  insights  into  the  varying  knowledge,  interests  and  at  times  

values  of  the  actors  who  together  can  bring  a  market  into  being  (Araujo,  2007).  

In  particular  this  process  may  be  seen  as  a  market  emerges  or  in  the  process  of   marketisation  of  a  sector  or  an  area  of  society.  

   2.2.1 Marketisation  

Examining  how  markets  emerge,  the  process  of  marketisation,  Callon  (2015)   described  this  as  thinking  about  the  architecture  of  markets  and  the  means  of   outlining  the  distinct  elements  of  a  market.  Similarly,  Calışkan  and  Callon   (2010)  described  the  process  of  marketisation  as  ‘the  entirety  of  efforts  aimed  at   describing,  analysing  and  making  intelligible  the  shape,  constitution  and  

dynamics  of  a  market  socio-­‐technical  arrangement’  (p.  3).  What  emerges  in   marketisation,  and  has  particular  relevance  in  this  study,  is  an  opportunity  to   appreciate  the  mechanisms  at  work,  recognising  materiality  as  well  as  the   human  role,  both  of  which  may  be  less  identifiable  in  processes  where  markets   are  already  to  some  degree  considered  as  ‘established’.  Showing  the  spread  of   marketisation  in  contemporary  western  society  into  further  aspects  of  life  such   as  health  and  welfare,  which  have  previously  been  considered  resistant  to   marketisation,  provides  a  context  for  a  detailed  examination  of  the  roles  and   activities  of  different  market  actors.    

Thus,  marketisation  showcases  the  activities  of  different  market  actors  

revealing  their  activities  in  influencing  or  directing  how  a  market  forms  which   may  be  different  to  what  is  undertaken  by  the  same  actors  once  a  market  is   established  and  being  maintained.  Whilst  making  the  ‘struggles‘  and  

negotiations  involved  in  the  marketisation  of  a  sector  clear,  Callon  (2015)  saw   the  disentangling,  but  also  the  process  responsible  for  identifying,  different   market  elements  emerging.  In  marketisation  an  opportunity  exists  to  observe  

the  actors  as  well  as  their  practices  as  they  qualify  what  is  of  worth  or  of  value   in,  a  market.  Supporting  Callon’s  suggestion  through  their  study  of  the  

everyday  work  involved  in  marketisation  Mason,  et  al.  (2017b)  highlighted  the   importance  of  understanding  that  in  marketisation  productive  work  takes   place  continually  to  ‘constitute,  innovate  and  reconfigure  market  systems’  (p.  

2).  Described  as  ‘when  markets  and  market  logic  have  diffused  into  spheres  of   life’  (Aspers,  2011,  p.  580)  marketisation  is  where,  via  adoption  and  adaptation   of  market-­‐based  logic,  through  market  processes  areas  become  subjected  to   new  or  different  market-­‐based  values.  Importantly,  marketisation  reveals  an   assumption  or  underpinning  rationale  that  in  contemporary  society  a  market   infrastructure  is  widely  viewed  as  the  most  efficient  mechanism  of  organising   (Araujo  and  Pels,  2015).  For  example,  discussing  the  recent  reforms  to  the   National  Health  Service  (NHS)  in  England,  Sturgeon  (2014)  suggested  that,   because  of  both  the  neo-­‐liberal  policies  and  current  approach  to  the  public   funding  of  healthcare,  the  NHS  had  become  involved  in  what  he  regarded  as   the  business-­‐like  activities  of  competing  for  resources  alongside  other  

healthcare  providers  whilst  striving  to  provide  a  service  ‘valued’  by  service   users.  Consequently,  Sturgeon  detailed  the  marketisation  of  this  sector  seeing   service  users  in  healthcare  compared  to  consumers  in  other  markets.    

Within  the  study  of  markets,  and  most  recently  in  the  controversy  of   marketisation  in  particular,  ‘concern’  has  been  used  to  provide  some  

understanding  as  to  how  and  why  markets  have  spread  into  areas  that  were   once  considered  as  immune  from  markets.    

   2.2.2 Concerned markets  

The  suggestion  in  marketisation  of  who  and  what  can  influence  the  forming   and  shaping  of  a  market  has  become  of  particular  interest  to  scholars  who  have   sought  a  way  to  understand  the  ‘intricate  connections  between  social,  

scientific,  political  and  economic  issues’  (Geiger  et  al.,  2014  p.  3).  A  key  body  of   work  in  this  area  has  formed  around  the  conceptualisation  of  ‘Concerned   Markets’  (Geiger  et  al.,  2014)  where  the  idea  of  ‘concern’  in  market  forming  and   shaping  has  been  described  as  the  examination  of  reorganising,  changing   relations,  processes  of  justification  and  the  evoking  of  different  ideas  of  worth   in  the  study  of  markets  (p.  5-­‐8).  Importantly,  these  ideas  of  ‘concern’  have   enabled  the  study  of  markets  to  move  into  considering  the  organising  of  areas   of  society  which  deal  with  core  collective  concerns  and  social  problems,  as   opposed  to  the  processes  associated  with  exchange  of  goods  and  services  for   profit.  For  example,  D’Antone  et  al.  (2017)  discussed  a  role  for  concern  to  play   in  what  can  ‘animate’  (p.  67)  or  move  a  sector.  ‘Concern’  is  an  explanation  for   what  mobilises  in  markets,  in  particular  in  situations  with  tensions,  

controversies  and  conflicting  practices  (p.  86-­‐69).  Here  ‘concern’  is  the  catalyst   but  also  the  route  for  the  integration  of  diverse  interests  stimulating  the  

processes  of  marketisation.  Specifically,  developing  the  ‘marketisation  of   concerns’  (p.  77),  D’Antone  et  al.  advance  the  understanding  of  how  different   principles  and  values  are  integrated  and  accommodated  in  market  spaces,  an   illustration  which  is  particular  useful  in  this  study  where  several  contradictory   values  surfaced.  

‘Concern’  in  Market  Studies  has  introduced  multiple  values  and  expanded  the   economic  basis  of  valuation,  in  particular  of  the  market  object  or  the  central   focus  of  what  was  of  worth  or  value  in  a  market,  thus  facilitating  the  theorising   of  non-­‐economic  ideals.  Whilst  work  by  Callon  and  Muniesa  (2005)  and  

Calışkan  and  Callon  (2009,  2010)  had  focused  on  the  processes  in  Market   Studies  of  economisation  or  the  acts  and  practices  of  quantification  and   valuation  which  explain  economic  forms  of  life,  concern  introduced  the   possibility  to  broaden  the  study  of  markets  giving  opportunities  to  consider   and  express  diverging  economic,  social,  environmental  and  political  interests.  

Returning  to  the  work  of  D’Antone  et  al.  (2017),  this  study  showed  how  

environmental  and  social  principles  entwined  with  economic  values  in  the  cell   phone  market.  Consequently  what  emerges  from  the  ideas  of  concerned  

markets  is  how  areas  of  life  which  had  not  previously  been  considered  either  as   organised  in  markets  or  through  the  modalities  of  economisation  become   included  in  market  structures.  It  is  through  concern  that  an  explanation  of  how   previous  expressions  of  social  or  humanitarian  concern,  in  areas  such  as  

education,  health  or  the  environment,  have  become  restated  to  incorporate   financial  or  economic  principles.    

The  ideas  of  concerned  markets  can  be  said  to  have  moved  the  study  of   markets  beyond  an  exchange  based  solely  on  what  has  been  outlined  as  a   monetary  value  of  a  product  or  service  and  into  areas  of  society  where  a  market   object  or  central  focus  of  a  market  is  less  clearly  defined  and  more  difficult  to   understand.  This  has  relevance  not  only  for  understanding  the  configuration  of  

markets  in  areas  of  society  which  were  once  considered  beyond  the  reach  of   markets  but  also  in  a  growing  body  of  academic  work  which  considers  Bottom   of  the  Pyramid  (BoP)  markets  in  which  the  consumers  are  living  on  less  than   US$2  a  day  (Mason  et  al.,  2017a).  In  a  recent  special  issue  of  ‘Marketing  Theory’,   the  work  of  Geiger  et  al.  (2014)  on  concerned  markets  was  used  to  further  the   understanding  in  BoP  markets  in  areas  at  the  centre  of  the  lives  of  the  very   poor  and  in  particular  to  consider  how  marketisation  was  affecting  very   vulnerable  populations  (Mason  et  al.,  2017a).  In  this  thesis  where  economic   principles  form  only  one  of  many  conflicting  principles  around  the  care  of  the   terminally  ill  ‘concern’  will  be  shown  to  be  important  as  this  sector  is  emerging,    

Having  established  the  importance  of  the  study  of  markets  within  this  thesis   the  next  section  details  actions  which  are  undertaken  and  the  market  systems   which  they  enact  as  this  chapter  moves  forward  towards  considering  the  micro   practices  involved  in  shaping  and  forming  markets.  

2.3 Configuring a market  

In  the  study  of  markets,  Callon  (1998)  used  the  concept  of  ‘framing’;  the   operation  of  defining  distinct  elements,  for  example  the  subjects  and  objects   within  a  market,  to  clarify  and  explain  the  distributed  actions  involved  in   bringing  a  market  into  being.  Callon  employed  framing  as  the  process  which   produced  the  ‘spaces  of  calculability’  (p.  20)  or  of  how  new  markets