CAPITULO I:} EL PROCESO PENAL PERUANO
1.5. Partes procesales:
2.2
2.2
2.2
InsInsInsInstitutional changes within the fartitutional changes within the fartitutional changes within the fartitutional changes within the farming communityming communityming communityming community
2.2.
2.2.
2.2.
2.2.1111
Organic farming associations anOrganic farming associations anOrganic farming associations anOrganic farming associations and their interrelationshipsd their interrelationshipsd their interrelationshipsd their interrelationships
Austria has eleven organic producer organisations, but Ernte (founded in 1979) is the leading one representing approximately 55 per cent of all organic producers (source [future abbreviation: s]: all interviewees). The Ernte has been characterised as an efficient organisation with an influential position in lobbying for organic farming (s: organic farmers’ organisation and agriculture administration representative). Ernte also supports its members in marketing their produce, through information on outlets as well as providing assistance in direct marketing. Ernte operates in most regions while most other certification bodies operate either in specific regions and/or are of limited importance nationally.
Ernte is also the leading association in the umbrella organisation ARGE- Biolandbau (Arbeitsgemeinschaft zu Förderung des biologischen Land- baus), which was formed in 1984 and now represents approximately 90 per cent of all farm members of organic producer organisations. Other members of the ARGE-Biolandbau are ORBI (Fördergemeinschaft für ein gesundes Bauerntum, 1962), Demeter Österreich (1969), Biolandwirtschaft
3 Interviewees included two Representatives of the Agricultural Ministry of Austria (one interview was
conducted by Karin Hofer for the project funded by the Commission of the EU, DG XII under the EU's RTD Programme 'Environment and Climate' (ENV4-CT96-0227); one representative of Agrarmarkt Austria (AMA); one representative from the Conference of Presidents of the Chambers of Agriculture; one agriculture scientist; one representative of a regional Ernteverband; one representative of the Association of Mountain farmers; one representative of a small eco-label; one representative of Raiffeisen Verband; one representative of Billa (conducted by Karin Hofer for the project funded by the Commission of the EU, DG XII under the EU's RTD Programme 'Environment and Climate' (ENV4-CT96-0227); one representative of Spar-Marketing; one administrative officer of AMA-Marketing; and one representative of a minor processing firm.
Ennstal (1988), Verein der biologisch wirtschaftenden Ackerbaubetriebe (BAF 1986) and Freiland (1995). ARGE-Biolandbau seems to form more formal alliances with various animal welfare and environmental organisations.
The second umbrella organisation ÖIG (Österreichische Interessen- gemeinschaft für biologische Landwirtschaft) consists of only three associations, the Erde & Saat (founded in 1987) together with its daughter company “Grüner Zweig”, the association Dinatur (founded in 1990 after a split from Demeter) and the KOPRA (consumer producer association, founded in 1991 as a regional association in the Vorarlberg province). The ÖIG was founded in 1994 as an alternative for producer organisations that were more interested in alternative marketing structures to the super- markets. This issue represents some potential for conflict between the two umbrella organisations (Vogel and Hess 1996). It seems the reasons for the organisational split into twelve organic associations arises out of historic development and the personalities involved (s: agriculture research). The oldest association ORBI (Förderungsgemeinschaft für ein gesundes Bauerntum) was formally established in 1962 – not by farmers but by people with an interest in agriculture who had learned about the ideas of Dr. Hans Mueller in Switzerland. In several interviews the organisation is characterised as dominated by nationalist and partly national-socialist ideology. During the 1970s Ernte developed both in order to represent the farmers’ interests and to maintain a distance from the ideology of ORBI. The pioneers of Ernte are characterised as pragmatic but imaginative in trying to establish structures that would allow the self-help principle in line with Mueller’s understanding of organic farming to be realised (s: organic farmers’ organisation representive). The co-operation of several regions with the Agriculture Chambers was initiated rather early on, with Oberösterreich and Steiermark seeming to be particularly successful examples.
Later on disputes within Ernte led to a split and the emergence of the separate organisation, Erde & Saat. Areas of disagreement at the time involved farming practices as well as the co-operation with the Agriculture Chambers (s: organic farmers’ organisation representative). Other smaller associations developed in a regional context representing the interests of some farmers in a special region (e.g. Biolandwirtschaft Ennstal) or of certain producers (Weinviertel) and have not emerged as important actors in the internal conflicts of the organic farming sector. In addition, the conflicts among organic farming organisations are not very important at the level of the individual farmer who very often co-operates, with particular regard to marketing (s: organic farmers’ organisation representative).
Overall it appears that the interrelationship between the producer organisations and the two umbrella organisations in the organic sector should be characterised as competitive. Although the organic sector itself wishes to tone down the importance of conflicts between the organic bodies, the lack of unity among the organic sector bodies is seen by the
general agriculture sector as an obstacle to co-operation (s: general farmers’ organisation representative). Likewise, the agriculture officials have also expressed problems of identifying whom to turn to when an organic farming perspective on issues is needed (s: agriculture administrator). The failure of the organic organisations to support a joint initiative for labelling may be seen as the main reason for the Minister (at that time, Franz Fischler) to hand over control on public labelling to the general agriculture organisation, AMA (s: retail representative).
2.2.2
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2.2.2
Motivations and barriers to conversionMotivations and barriers to conversionMotivations and barriers to conversionMotivations and barriers to conversion
Until 1990, organic producers in Austria were mainly motivated by their convictions (s: organic farmers’ organisation representative). This seems to have changed when the organic farming subsidies were introduced in 1989 as this made many farmers converts – seemingly in order to ensure a continuation or increase in their level of income. The organic farming subsidies were perceived to be the first ever production based subsidy for grassland farmers in Western Austria and were seen as a suitable way to compensate for income losses caused by the EU accession (s: general farmers’ organisation representative). In addition, the possibility to sell products at higher prices also seems an important incentive for conversion. Although there appears to be a distinct difference between “older” and “newer” organic producers, the biggest organic farming organisation, Ernte, is not opposed to the strong presence of economic motives among new converters. The organisation itself promotes organic farming as a way to improve the incomes of farmers and to improve the image of
agriculture. In a similar way, general farming organisations perceive organic farming as a way to maintain the Austrian traditional model of family farming. Thus the promotion of organic farming focuses on issues of health, animal welfare, and on survival strategies for the traditional Austrian type of farmer. In society at large, agriculture is, in general, not regarded as a real environmental pollutant. The dominant view is rather that Austrian agriculture is in fact environmentally friendly, while the big farms in EU member states have problems with pollution and animal welfare. The public relations campaigns of the ministry were always primarily concerned with the health aspect. Within the agriculture sector, organic farming is viewed as a niche for one section of the farming community, which would otherwise have to be relinquished when confronted with EU competition (Michelsen and Krongaard [unpub- lished]). Eder (1998b) attributed the low uptake to a lack of know-how among arable farmers. This raises the question of whether the efforts in increasing knowledge and information about organic farming have yet been successful in all areas and for all farm types.
2.2.3
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Knowledge, infoKnowledge, infoKnowledge, infoKnowledge, information and advicermation and advicermation and advicermation and advice
At the beginning of the development of organic farming in Austria, information and knowledge was mainly generated by the organic farmers and distributed through informal networks of producers (Fersterer and Gruber 1998). In a next stage, the producer organisations started to develop their own information and advisory structures. This was supported by general institutions that provide training for farmers, particularly in the context of a strong emphasis on regional development in several areas, under which organic initiatives were covered.
As a result of the rapid growth in the number of organic farms between 1992 and 1995 the regional agricultural chambers recognised a need to get involved, particularly because of the large number of farmers who were not members of producer organisations. Hence, currently mainly two types of bodies provide information and advice, the producer organisations (mainly Ernte) and the regional agricultural chambers.
Ernte has delegated the responsibility for the advisory services to its regional offices and provision varies between the regions. In Steiermark and Oberösterreich co-operation with the agricultural chambers started early on and resulted in a joint advisory service, whereas in the other regions, the development of training and advisory structures was inde- pendent of the mainstream, based on professional all-round advisors or, in some regions, (e.g. Kärnten) on part-time farmer advisors. Some advisors have specialised in particular areas, but within the producer organisation this specialist knowledge is pooled and can be used over a wider region. In addition to professional advice a structure of regional and farm-type discussion groups exists. In the smaller producer organisations the flow of information is more dependent on these groups and voluntary activities, rather than on professional advice.
Responsibility for official advice through the Agricultural Chambers lies also with the provincial agricultural chambers whereas the federal Ministry only has a co-ordinating role. Although there was originally strong resentment against organic farming in the chambers and vice versa in some provinces, this was mainly overcome in the early ’90s although some regional differences remain. In 1997, in the whole of Austria, approx. 20 full-time advisors assisted organic producers, 40 per cent in regional chambers, 25 per cent in producer organisations and the remaining 35 per cent in joint arrangements (Fersterer and Gruber 1998).
A widespread problem of the past seems to have been that most Codex farms (farms certified according to the national standards by the chamber) did not receive conversion advice from professionally qualified advisors. A particular deficit was identified in the area of knowledge about the
principles of organic production. Further, the limited advisory capacity has been directed towards farmers in the process of converting at the expense of established organic producers (Fersterer and Gruber 1998).
Despite the remaining problems, both Ernte and the Ministry unanimously judged the introduction of organic advisory staff in the Agriculture Chambers as a very important step for the development of organic farming in Austria (s: organic farmers’ organisation and agriculture administration representatives).