Capítulo 1. Graffiti: la afrenta a la economía política del espacio público
1.3. Elementos metodológicos generales
1.3.2. Participantes del estudio
Table 7.4 provides an overall summary of the job search requirements for the main assistance benefits in the countries in our study. In the great majority of countries, there is a work test in operation which usually requires that recipients register as unemployed and establish that they are actively looking for work. The exceptions to this include Greece, where the only general payments are made on a one-off basis, and a work test for recurrent eligibility is not relevant. In addition, in Japan, outside Reykjavik in Iceland, and in Switzerland it appears that the requirement to seek work is not a formal rule. but that there are very strong expectations that individuals will make full use of their capacities. Work tests can also be applied informally through the basic conditions of eligibility. For example, the discourse on social assistance in Canada appears to make a strong distinction between the `employable' and the `unemployable', while in several of the United States. General Assistance is simply not available to able-bodied single people or couples without children - surely the strongest possible expression of the requirement to be actively seeking work. At the other extreme, under ten per cent of the already small number of social assistance recipients of Luxembourg are affected by the work test.
In virtually all countries, work tests are not applied. or are more relaxed. for people who are ill or experience disabilities. or who are over or approaching retirement age. The major variations relate to lone parents, in particular to the age of children who exempt lone parents from the requirement to actively seek work. The most liberal provisions apply in Ireland. the United Kingdom, Australia and
New Zealand. where lone parents are not required to seek work until their youngest child is 16 years (or older). Requirements vary across provinces of Canada, from the most restrictive (six months) to the more generous (12 years). Germany is also relatively liberal in this respect, as lone parents must normally seek part-time work when their youngest child is at school. and full-time work when the child is 14 or over. In Norway, lone parents receiving the Transitional Allowance are not required to seek work until the youngest child turns ten years of age. In Luxembourg and the Netherlands, the qualifying ages are six years and five years respectively. In Austria and Finland, the qualifying age is three years. while in Sweden the age is being liberalised from about 1.5 months to three years. In both Sweden and Denmark, however - the two countries with the strongest expectation of work or work-seeking ---- municipalities are required to provide child care for lone parents looking for work. In France, the extent to which lone parents receiving the
RM1 would be expected to engage in `
insertion' activities varies both by
dcpertements and according to individual circumstances. Those with children under
Table 7.4: ;lob search requirements in social assistance schemes, OECD count s. 1994
Australia
Austria
Work test
Unemployed people must demonstrate that they have sought work in the last two weeks, (the "actively seeking work test") The requirements differ by category of people. namely oleic) people. lone parents, short or long-term unemployed people The activity test is not applicable to those aged 60 and pension age Those near retirement age do not have to look for work.
fo qualify for fortnightly payments people must advise the Commonwealth
Employment Service of their efforts to find work.
Yes, but not applicable to lone parents, with child =3; disabled; 60 years and over. Others register with Labour Markel Administration,
Sanctions/I ncentirea
The lcr.ment of income support is linked to satisfying the work test. Failure to do so may mean loss of benefit.
Partial or full loss of benefit
Job offers/training schemes
Refusing a a job h offer or trainin scheme may he seen as failing the qualification test
Not compulsory. No specific insertion or integration agreements.
Hours rules
Unemployed people can do up to 20 hours voluntary work a week but there are limits, so tlatit they spend some of their time looking for paid work. This varies by client. For example. those under 18 can do up to 30 days a year. but those aged 18- 49 can only do this much if
unemployed for more than 6 months.
No limit, but laconic test implies part-time work
Belgium
Cinada
Finland Denmark
Yes, not ill and lone parents (discretion)
Distinction between employable and unemployable across provinces For employables, must be involuntary and taking active steps. Tone parents may be exempted. but age of child for exemption varies from 6 months to 12 years. More relaxed with older workers.
Yes eonfirmation friant employment service that seeking job. If ill, they may be exempt. With child, exempt if municipality unable to provide sufficient child care.
Able-bodied must register as job seekers. Varies across municipalities.
No work test for lone parents with child'-3 years.
For 25 partial or total suspension for 1 month for noncompliance with 'integration contract'. Up to 3 months for repeated non-compliance. Suspension, reduction or termination, varying across provinces. Quebec most systematic in sanctions. Assistance for travel and care costs in enhancement programmes.
Loss of benefit possible
... ... Not clear.
Help available with child care costs.
'Programme for More
Solidaristic Society' compulsory for <25. 'Social employment' by municipalities
ismployxhility enhancement measures not compulsory. "Four-cornered agreements° f'cac' increased participation by claimants. General programmes may have designated places for recipients.
Yowl' Allowance for 18 24s. Compul.or_y to undertake training or other approved scheme. MonieipitI Activation Act for people up to 66 Claimants may lose benefits, but optional for municipalities No workfare schemes. Optional schemes, including for early school leavers.
No liniit, so long as available for fall-time work
No hours limit, but earnings reduce benefits
No limit, so limp as not in full-tine job
No limit, but Cara zings reduce benefits
Iahle 7.4: Job search requirements in social assistance schemes, OECD cot ies, 1994 (coethf )
Yes, but 91% effectively exempt, due to age, child<fi years, own invalidity, caring for sick child or i.ll adult
Work test
France AI and ASS must register for work. Not others. API available for 12 months, or
until youngest child turns 3.
_ . Since most people who claim assistance need the benefits to supplement their income, people call work any hours, but earnings are taken into account. In
Reykjavik they must provide proof that they are actively seeking work.
Compulsory for Unemployment Assistance. Those claiming Supplementary Welfare Allowance may be required to seek work if waiting for decision on claim for fJA_ Must register with training and employment authority (FAS). All other exempt
Partially disabled must attend employment agency and accept suitable job. MV for able-bodied requires job acceptance or work. on public projects.
Recipients must make full use of personal capacities. Judgements discretionary by local authorities.
Benefit can be withdrawn for tip to 12 months for 3 temporary, suspensions due to non- compliance. Benefit can be withheld for voluntary job leavers. Additional payments over RMG on social
Job offers/training schemes
Insertion contracts for RMI. Not stated
30% in employment or training, Some others involve non-labour market activities.
Highly developed general training. Obligations on municipalities to offer regular jobs, or special less regulated schemes. Compulsory to accept offers on special employment schemes but limited spaces.
First time job-seekers must accept work offered by local or central government agencies or follow vocational training provided by OAEI)
Refusal to accept a job would lead to the withdrawal of benefit
Apart from compulsory FAS courses, also voluntary partial job incentive schemes etc to
provide "second chance" education and training
Public insertion projects, but very small coverage
Insertion agreements for RMU. No limit Participation in training low,
but community service options popular.
Germany Yes, but not physically or mentally incapable, if affects children, or hinder return to previous principal activity. Older unemployed usually exempt. For lone parents, normally must seek part-time work when youngest at school, and full-time at 14. Greece Iceland Ireland Italy Japan Luxembourg Sanctions/Incentives Not stated.
Subsidies for employers, inc. exemption from social security contributions.
Not stated.
Small benefit supplements.
First time job seekers must register in special Not stated lists for young unemployed
Benefit payments rusty be reduced if' claimants do not satisfy the work test
Failure to attend training course can lead to loss of entitlement for up to 9 weeks.
Back to work allowance gives partial benefits while working.
Hours rules
No limits
Not stated
Unemployed people can now enter voluntary work and not lose benefit
CIA allows up to 3 days work, but retire rakes Ineligible. Pre-retirees have earnings limit. Carers cannot be in full-time work. SWA not working more than 30 hours per week_ Not stated
Not stated Not compulsory No limit
Table 7.4: Job search requirements in social assistance schemes, OECD countries. 1994 (cont d.)
Work test Sanetionsllncentives Job offers/training schentes Moors rules
RV V required to sign on.
ABW exempt, but from 1994. lone parents required to seek work if no child under 5.
Netherlands Many potential sanctions under
RWW, from benefit reduction to suspension.
Small supplements for those taking up jobs from local councils,
Municipalities required to create job pools'. Youth job
Guarantee Scheme pays minimum wage after 6.12
months unemployment.
No unit
New Zealand
Norway
Compulsory for unemployment benefit and Independent Youth Benefit. Relaxed for those 55+. Not applicable to lone parents.
SEA claimants must he available for work, and accept offers.
Lone parents with child under 10 eligible for Transitional Allowance without work test. Those aged over 67 and all disabled exempt.
Sanctions possible, but not specified
`Benefits may he reduced to absolute minimum' if work refused.
Rehabilitation allowances for those with.permanently
,
reduced capacity to work.
Pilot programmes for lone parents. Training beneficiaries must attend training. Small- scale optional special work schemes. Contracts being considered.
'Voluntary' agreements between young people and municipalities to take on special work. Work and training schemes available with pay.
Unemployment beneficiaries mast be available for full-time work. Working sickness beneficiaries unlikely to he medically qualified. No limits otherwise, but must satisfy income test.
No hours limits. so long as available for full-time work
Portugal Only for claimants of Young Persons Not stated Integration Benefit. Must register at
employment centre.
Young people r'u'I undertake Not stated
vocational training or basic education before registration at employment centre Spain
Turkey Sweden
Switterla rid
Must be.registered at National Institute of
Employment
Strict requirements, except for those 65 years and over, and those with documented i mpediments to work. Lone parents must
have child care, but obligatory for municipality to provide for children 18
months and over. Parents allowance for year after- birth (plus 90 days), and not required to seek work, home care allowance from July 1994 with no work requirement for those with children up to 3
years. _tee
Apparently not compulsory. Benefits depend on assessed need.
ei.seu
Expected to seek work Disabled apply to specialist agencies.
Proposals for those refusing lob offers to be struck off register Supreme Administrative Court ruling that benefits cannot he denied if work refused.
Small extra assistance for those in voluntary community service.
Regional `social contracts`, but details limited
ea_
Municipalities may offer public relief work and organise training. New unit in National
Board of Social Welfare. Successful active labour market programmes.
Social reintegration and client rehabilitation are explicit objectives. Beneficiary status expected to he temporary. Provision of equipment for productive activity possible
No limit, but income dedaacted No limit. hull-tithe work likely. to disqualify through income.
Not stated
Not stated
Not stated
No limit if resources inadequate
Table 7.4: Job search requirements in social assistance schemes, OECD countries, 1994 (ratiti1 )
Work test
es, except lone parents witht child under 16. or 19 and in full-time education; ill and disabled: 91) years and over maternity confinements; certain carers. Others must sign on, but not partners of claimants. United Sta-.es There Isa work test to all programmes
except S51. AFDC must register foe the JUBs programme. For FS people must
satisfy the work conditions. For (,OA, people must satisfy conditions.
SanetionslIncenlites
Failure to seek work can lead to ineligibility for benefit. but hardship payment s availtible. Rcduetion made in case of voluntary unemployment. Loss of benefit
Job otters/training schemes
Wide range of trrtining schemes. not formally compulsory
Refusal to cooperate may affect pitymettl
I lours rules
24 hours per week up to 1992. Since then, 16 hours per week for claimants. but 24 hours per week for partners of
unemployed, from October 1994.
Not stated United Kingdom
Most social assistance schemes employ sanctions against those who fail the work tests. As shown in Table 7.4. these range from full loss of benefits either through ineligibility or suspension. or loss of part of benefits for defined periods. There is no indication from the material supplied to us how often these sanctions are applied, or how effective they are judged to be. There are also schemes offering incentives to return to work. or to set up as self-employed. Specific incentives were identified in Australia (from March 1995). Ireland, Luxembourg. the Netherlands. Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom. and the United States. In most cases. these appear to be small extra supplements, or lump-sum grants, although a number of countries also made available loans and grants under their various special assistance arrangements for people wanting to start up in self-employment. In the United Kingdom a package of work measures was announced in the 1994 Budget. These measures are designed to improve the take-home pay of people working full- ti me on modest incomes. and to provide incentives for those seeking work, as well as to boost jobs by reducing costs to employers.
Incentives may also be provided through training and education programmes, although because of the focus of this research we did not collect information on general training programmes in OECD countries. In the majority of countries, it appears that acceptance of job or training offers is compulsory. at least for young people (for example, Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway and Portugal). or optional in the case of Finland. Municipalities have obligations to offer employment schemes in Belgium. Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain and Sweden. Such schemes appear to be most limited in countries with more restrictive assistance arrangements, such as Austria and Italy.
Finally. Table 7.4 provides details of the operation of 'hours rules' in social assistance schemes. Here it appears that only Ireland and the United Kingdom have rules formally excluding from benefits those working more than a specified number of hours per week. Both countries also. however. have separate in-work benefits which provide help for those working for more hours than the social assistance limits. In all other cases, there are no formal rules. although the operation of the income test generally implies that recipients could only be working part-time. or else recipients are required to be available to take full-time work, if offered. In Australia, there are a range of limits on hours worked by carers, the short-term sick and those with disabilities. but these are designed as tests of primary eligibility.