It is recognised that this strategy is useful for witnesses, particularly eye witnesses to an event and helps prevent wrongful identification because of memory errors previously identified (Fisher and Geiselman, 1992). Although the reverse order technique is to elaborate the memory by moving from semantic memory to episodic, memory for a traumatic event is less likely to be stored in semantic formats as it is often still in sensory and perceptual networks. Moving to long-term permanent memory structures would require some preliminary work before recalling the event in reverse order (Holmes and Mathews, 2005). In considering the fallibility in memory, deficits in memory processing for individuals with PTSD this instruction may only cause confusion and undo some of the earlier work in mapping out the timeline of events. Until memory has been processed into contextualised memory format, the ‘reverse order recall’ may further disorientate recollection (Bergmann, 2012).
6.3.4 The ‘change perspective’ instruction
As Fisher and Geiselman, 1992 reported, individuals are more likely to report their experience from their own perspectives. For witness testimony, this change of perspective may be useful to re-call information that is inconsistent with their previous beliefs and attitudes that can lead to a bias in reporting. By changing their perspective, they are able to access parts of the memory not initially accessible (Fisher and Geiselman, 1992). For a traumatised individual, this strategy may provide an element of distancing that may be useful when affect or distress is high. In distancing and changing perspective, a more objective view can be made. This may also be useful in reducing issues of self-blame and responsibility for the event that victims of traumatic sexual violation often do (Steele et al. 2017).
6.3.5 ‘Imaginal reliving’ technique (Ehlers and Clark, 2000)
In addition to the above techniques memory retrieval is amplified when individuals close their eyes and go through the event in first person, present tense and being asked about their sensory experiences as they go through the event (Holmes and
Mathews, 2005; Holmes et al., 2006, 2007a, 2008d; Ehlers and Clark, 2000). Much of the research leads to this approach or developing a field perspective in retrieving clear visual and detailed memories (Nigro and Neisser, 1983). This would require specialist training and understanding as it would again be important to keep the witness/victim within the window of tolerance or optimal levels for processing memory (Ogden et al. 2006). There are a number of empirically grounded clinical interventions that are supported by experimental research, systematic clinical observations and controlled trials. The efficacy of imaginal reliving is supported by the research (Holmes and Mathews, 2005; Holmes et al. 2006; 2008d; Holmes et al. 2007).
Imaginal reliving (imaginal exposure to disturbing memories with eyes closed and talking in present tense, first person ‘as if you are experiencing the event in current time’) can help access memories and new understanding that was previously inaccessible when using verbal recollections only (Foa et al. 1991; Hackmann et al. 2011). It can help individuals make sense of their experience and lessen their emotional reaction to it. It would be essential that interviewers would not proceed with this technique if affect is overwhelming, where there is severe childhood trauma or severe mental illness (Hackmann et al. 2011). Given the effectiveness of this technique appropriate training would be crucial. Hackmann et al. (2011) emphasise the need for a trusting relationship to be in place and there is time for discussing and reflecting on the experience. Grounding techniques would be needed and ongoing support. It is recognised that this may not be available if there are limited resources. The interviewer would be able to prompt the witness with open questions such as ‘what is happening now?’ as in the open recall techniques already utilised by police investigators. It would be critical at this point of reliving that investigators/interviewers do not impose any leading questions or suggestions as the memory is at its most fallible at this point (Bergmann, 2014; Lanius et al. 2014). However if completed with skill and appropriately, this process can enable consolidation of the previously raw sensory memory to a reconstructed verbal memory that is contextualised within time and place. This process was described in the configurative review regarding neural maps that are recorded and stored implicitly in an often unconscious, dormant and encrypted format that once activated is able to become conscious, explicit episodic
memories that can be converted to more semantic formats where verbal descriptions of the memory can occur (Dasmasio, 2010; Bergmann, 2012).
Previous studies have found mixed results with eyes closed on the level and quantity of recall during police interview procedures (Perfect et al. 2011; Vredeveldt and Penrod. 2012). These differences may be due to the experimental designs or with different participants. It may be considered beneficial when accessing dissociative elements of the memory but may be limited if the individual lacks capacity to visualise events in this way (Perfect et al. 2011). Further research may be required to ascertain which witness groups are more likely to benefit.
Care and attention is most important prior to utilising any of the strategies discussed. Appropriately trained professionals with specific training would need to ensure no harm results by retraumatising the witness. Smith and Milne (2017) have developed a witness care strategy that consider the safety and risk of witnesses and to ensure therapeutic support is available in these cases. They emphasise that the impact of trauma should be considered throughout the whole of the investigation and interview process (Witness Interview Strategy for Critical Incidents, 2017).
In conclusion the discussion of findings from chapter 4 and chapter 5 have emphasised the need for flexibility in approaches to investigation and interviewing traumatised witnesses. Consideration of a specialist role for either an intermediary and/or specialist trauma informed SOIT interviewer so that problems related to the trauma and difficulties in retrieving the trauma memory can be appropriately assessed and considered so that most effective techniques can be applied when investigating the crime and undertaking video recorded evidence fit for trial. A number of adaptions to the existing cognitive interview and memory enhancing techniques were considered and a number of recommendations made. The next chapter concludes the research as a whole, again providing a number of recommendations and directions for future research.