PLAN DE CUIDADOS DE ENFERMERIA

RESULTS

The main goal of this research was to better understand how underrepresented students may be supported in science learning through a combined IC, inquiry-based instructional approach, coupled with explicit instruction in NOS. This study explored how this form of instruction may be implemented in the context of an authentic research investigation and how it, in turn may support underrepresented students’ understandings of science. The following chapter presents results and findings related to the implementation of the inquiry-based Fossil Finders curriculum in an urban dual- language 5th _{grade classroom. First, an overview of the classroom implementation of} the curriculum will be presented. The next part will present findings related to the research question: How did the teacher make use of inquiry, instructional congruency and explicit instruction in NOS as an instructional approach? Following this section, I will present research findings related to the question: How did underrepresented students experience and respond to an instructional approach combining inquiry, instructional congruency and explicit instruction in NOS? Next, I will present two sections of emergent findings beyond the scope of the original research questions. These sections include addressing findings related to combining the classroom context and student experiences and findings related to students’ everyday and cultural

experiences.

Overview of Classroom Implementation of Curriculum

The focus teacher, Monica, implemented the Fossil Finders curriculum over 13 instructional days between the months of September and December in 2008. Monica

enacted the curriculum in block periods of time spanning between 30 and 90 minutes on the Mondays, Tuesdays, or Wednesdays of each week. She began the unit with the Fossil Finders background lessons about NOS and fossil identification (Appendix M). These lessons were designed to prepare students for the actual Fossil Finders

investigation. Table 6 below presents a timeline for the instructional unit implemented in Monica’s classroom.

During instructional Days 1 and 2, Monica initiated the Fossil Finders curriculum Tricky Tracks background lesson. As described above, this lesson was modified from the NAS (1998) “Proposing Explanations for Fossil Footprints” activity and formed an integral component of the Fossil Finders curricular approach. The purpose of this lesson was to introduce students to aspects of NOS and in particular, to learn to differentiate between making inferences and observations. Though this lesson does not engage students with authentic data, it models the activities of scientists and how scientific knowledge is tentative and may change based on the availability of new information. Thus, students have an opportunity to learn about the empirical nature of scientific work through the context of this activity.

During Day 3, Monica introduced the actual fossil samples to the Fossil Finders Leaders, a group of 8 students with higher levels of ELP. Because of their higher levels of ELP, the Fossil Finder leaders remained in class while the rest of the students received specialized language instruction outside the classroom, working in small groups in the hallway. These Fossil Finders Leaders, were given a collection of fossils that Monica gathered over the summer. These fossils were not the unknown fossil samples related to the Fossil Finders investigation, but rather a set of fossils hand picked by the teacher for use in helping students practice identifying different

Table 6. Fossil Finders Curriculum Implementation Timeline

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4

9/30 10/6 10/7 11/17

Tricky Tracks Dinosaur Stories;

backwards Vocabulary; Tricky Tracks Stories Tricky Tracks Fossil Exploration

Day 5 Day 6 Day 7 Day 8

11/24 12/1 12/2 12/3

Fossil

Identification Fossil Finders Leaders Fossil Measurements Fossil Finders Leaders Data Sheets Tricky Tracks Stories Class Fossil

Measurements "Fossil Fever" Read Aloud Tricky Tracks Stories

Day 9 Day 10 Day 11

12/8 12/9 12/10

Ask a scientist

prep Ask A Scientist: PRI visit Fossil Finders Investigation Continued Fossil Finders

Website Fossil Finders Investigation

Day 12 Day 13 Other

12/12 12/15 Monica Enter Data

Verifying Data Data Review Rocks Tell Stories

types of fossils. Monica asked students to observe the fossils and make inferences, and draw conclusions, about what organisms were fossilized without providing any greater details. As students looked at these fossils they made inferences, that they were seeing bones, fingers, fish, and so on. Monica allowed the students to retain their initial inferences without correcting them. As the other students returned to class from their specialized language instruction, they were placed into four collaborative groups and expected to join the ongoing classroom activities. Each of these collaborative groups included two of the Fossil Finders leaders. These leaders shared instructions about the activity they were in involved while the others were gone. As students

worked in their groups, Monica made her way across the classroom and interacted with each group. In this way, Monica was able to provide students with a

collaborative learning space and address the learning needs of students at various levels of ELP.

During Day 4, Monica reintroduced the Tricky Tracks activity, and added a story-writing component. She revisited the concept that scientists form different interpretations from the same data. She then invited students to write stories about their own interpretations of what may have occurred in the Tricky Tracks scenario. Monica then provided scaffolding related to writing stories, such as providing a title and setting, through the use of graphic organizers. In this way, Monica was able to integrate her school district’s requirements for instruction in English language arts into science instruction and also practice features of IC.

During Day 5 of instruction, Monica provided students with a key to begin identifying the practice fossils. Students began to learn the names of different fossilized organisms and how to differentiate between them, based on their sizes and shapes. Students also practiced measuring these fossils and filling out data sheets related to the type of fossil they were observing, its size, color, and condition. Throughout the next few days of instruction, Monica repeatedly asked students to make inferences about the environment in which these organisms had once lived. Students also continued to work on their Tricky Tracks stories during this time and focused on providing background information on the setting, or details about the environment in which the tracks were set, for their stories. Monica continued to synthesize the conversations related to the Tricky Tracks writing activity and making inferences about the environment in which the fossilized organisms once lived. Through this scaffolding, students began to infer that their local environment had once been covered by a tropical ocean.

Day 6 of instruction occurred on the Monday following Thanksgiving break. During this lesson, Monica provided Fossil Finders Leaders with instruction on how to measure length and width of fossils. Monica also referenced a prior lesson on how to convert from centimeters to millimeters to help students connect what they had previously learned to what they would need to do as a part of the investigation. The Fossil Finders Leaders practiced measuring fossils. Later they explained what they had been doing to group members who had attended specialized language instruction. Monica also provided students with datasheets to practice recording their fossil

measurements. Analysis of student work on these data sheets revealed that students were having difficulties with metric conversions. Consequently, Monica provided additional instruction on making metric conversions.

On Day 7 of instruction, students continued to practice measuring fossils and familiarizing themselves with the data recording sheets. However, some students still demonstrated having challenges with metric conversions and fossil identifications. The second part of class was dedicated to a read-aloud activity from a children’s fiction book called “Fossil Fever.” As Monica read to her students, she asked them to use evidence to make predictions about what would happen next in the storyline. In this way, Monica was again integrating literacy activities with science. Monica used this book to initiate conversations about where fossils can be found and environmental changes over time. She then showed students an image of a tropical sea with the living organisms that are now fossilized. In response, students drew on examples of their knowledge about fossils and tropical climates. Students then returned to further working on their Tricky Tracks stories.

Day 8 of instruction consisted of Monica working on the Tricky Tracks stories with the Fossil Finders leaders. These students later presented their draft stories to the rest of the classroom for comments and feedback. Monica commented on how the

student stories needed to connect to the tracks seen in the poster, as some students created fictitious accounts beyond the scope of the evidence they had. Students continued to work on their stories at their desks, while Monica met with individual students to discuss and comment on the progress of their stories.

After having interacted with actual fossil samples, students began to prepare for a geologist’s visit to their classroom. On Day 9, students drafted questions they would ask the scientist in their journals. They also visited the Fossil Finders website and entered their questions into the “Ask a Scientist” component of the site. Students asked the visiting geologist, Trina, these same questions the following day. Trina established a friendly rapport with students through her enthusiasm about fossils, storytelling, and joking about being a “geeky” scientist. At the same time, she held students accountable for what she had already discussed with them. For example, when a student who returned to class from specialized language instruction repeated a question that had already been asked, Trina asked the first group of students to address his question.

Monica initiated the Fossil Finders Investigation, the central component of the inquiry-based investigation of the Fossil Finders project, on Day 10. Students worked in small groups to identify, measure, and record data related to the fossils that were shipped from shale deposits in upstate New York, as discussed above. For the most part students were mostly able to correctly identify the type of fossil they were seeing and the differences between brachiopods and clams. Thus, they demonstrated learning science concepts since Day 3 of the curriculum unit, where they had identified fossils of the Devonian period as bones, fingers, and fish. Students also engaged in lively arguments about what they were observing and the processes of working through data. Students, for example, asked questions about whether they should measure a sample and then set it aside, and what would happen if they measured the same fossil twice.

Student groups continued working to identify, measure, and record information related to fossils in the sample sets through Day 11 of the unit.

On Days 12 and 13, students worked on completing the Tricky Tracks stories independently at their desks. During this time, Monica met with individual student groups in the back of the classroom to review the samples they had recorded on their data sheets. Each group verified the information recorded on their data sheets, such as the type of fossil and its measurements. At times, Monica found errors in

measurements. However, at other times students argued the reasons for why their data was correct. Due to time constraints, Monica did not have students enter their data into the online database and the verification work concluded her students’ involvement in the Fossil Finders investigation. Though working with the database was an

important component of the Fossil Finders curriculum, Monica entered student data in the database herself at a later time. As a result, students only experienced certain aspects of the inquiry related to fossil identification and measurement.

Further aspects of the investigation available to teachers included the

compilation of aggregate data and an analysis of classroom data in relation to the data gathered by other classes at other geological horizons. Data gathered at different horizons demonstrate evidence of the kinds of sea life found at different points in time. A comparison between horizons using evidence would have allowed for students to make inferences about changes in sea life over time. Nonetheless, findings below indicate student understandings of these concepts, even though they did not complete the entire investigation.

Later in the school year, Monica provided students with other instruction related to rocks and fossils. Students learned about the rock cycle and where fossils fit into this cycle. Student work samples illustrated students drawing from their

Monica implemented this instructional approach with respect to the focus constructs of this study is presented in the next section.

The teacher’s implementation of inquiry, IC, and explicit instruction in NOS This section presents findings related to how Monica implemented an instructional approach using the guiding constructs of this research in the context of the Fossil Finders curriculum. Classroom observations consisting of fieldnotes and videotapes comprised the primary sources of data collection to this end.

Characterizing the instruction in the classroom consisted of gathering fieldnotes focused the roles of the teacher and her students. Additionally, videotaping was used throughout the unit to capture Monica’s use of inquiry, IC, and explicit instruction in NOS. An analysis of classroom video from lessons across the instructional unit identified where Monica made use of the focus constructs in her teaching and categorized each instance by its respective features.

Excerpts of transcripts from instructional episodes representative of Monica’s teaching approach during the unit are included below. These episodes were

representative of the other instructional exchanges in Monica’s classroom. An additional analysis of the Tricky Tracks activity was conducted to determine how these features came together in instruction. Table 7 summarizes findings from the data analysis:

Table 7. Classroom Context Data Analysis Using the Three Guiding Constructs

Construct Observations and Findings

1 Inquiry There was evidence that the nature of the classroom _{environment shifted from teacher-centered questioning to} student-driven questioning and inquiry over the course of the instruction; within this context, Monica addressed all essential features of inquiry with particular attention to the use of evidence in scientific research.

2 IC in the _classroom Monica demonstrated regular use of IC strategies in teaching _{science, which included extending regular science learning} activities into literacy-focused assignments.

3 Explicit _{instruction in} NOS

During instruction Monica provided explicit instruction related to certain features of NOS; however, she did not address all features of NOS or consistently connect classroom activities to the authentic work of scientists.

4 Constructs _Combined Though Monica implemented features of inquiry, explicit _{instruction in NOS, and IC, not all features of each construct} were implemented as designed in the Fossil Finders curriculum. Evidence for the teacher’s use of these constructs is grounded in video data. I selected video segments that had 1) high video and audio quality and 2) addressed a research sub-question or provided evidence to support another emergent finding. These video transcriptions provide a record to qualify the instructional approaches used by Monica from the beginning to end of the Fossil Finders curriculum.

Exchanges between Monica and her students were categorized along the lines of the focus constructs, or inquiry, IC, and explicit instruction in NOS, followed by a secondary qualification addressing the particular feature of that construct (see Table 5). For example, if Monica made a statement or enacted an instructional approach that would correspond with explicit instruction in NOS, this exchange was categorized by its corresponding feature, such as the tentativeness of science. Video data

transcriptions were instrumental for characterizing the instructional approach used during the Fossil Finders unit. Supporting evidence for how Monica enacted the focus constructs and their features is presented in the next four sections: 1) the implementation of inquiry, 2) instructional congruency in the classroom, 3) explicit

instruction in NOS, and 4) a combined instructional approach between these three constructs.

Implementation of Inquiry

Inquiry entails both an instructional approach that stems from constructivist thinking and particular features that liken it to the practices of science. The

implementation of inquiry is thus dependant on the instructional approach used by teachers. For example, a student-centered (SC) instructional approach, where students actively engage in building knowledge embraces inquiry, as opposed to a teacher- directed (TD) instructional approach, where educators convey knowledge to students through didactic teaching (NRC, 2000). Consequently, it is important to consider both the nature of Monica’s teaching in relation to constructivist notions and which of the five features of inquiry her teaching addressed at particular times. Video data provide evidence of Monica implementing various features of inquiry across a continuum of a TD to SC teaching during the Fossil Finders instructional unit. Portions of this unit illustrate the amount of TD instruction as compared to SC learning in Monica’s classroom. These data demonstrate how Monica’s instructional approach evolved as the Fossil Finders unit was implemented.

Taken together, episodes from lessons across the Fossil Finders unit

demonstrate that Monica addressed the five essential features of inquiry to different degrees over the course of instruction. These features require that students: (a) engage in scientifically oriented questions, (b) give priority to evidence in responding to questions, (c) formulate explanations from evidence, (d) connect explanations to scientific knowledge, and (e) communicate and justify findings (NRC, 2000).

Together, these features form the foundation for introducing scientific activity and culture to the classroom. Data indicate to what extent Monica addressed these features

as well as the variation in Monica’s instructional approach to implementing inquiry (p. 29).

Monica’s implementation of inquiry across the Fossil Finders instructional unit is illustrated in Table 8 below. The purpose of this table is to consider whether and how features of inquiry were addressed in Monica’s classroom across the instructional unit. Thus, this table summarizes the key features of inquiry Monica addressed during each instructional day that were captured by video and fieldnotes. An understanding of Monica’s instructional approach, with respect to inquiry and the other focus constructs of this study is fundamental to drawing inferences about the science learning experiences of students in her classroom. Other tables presented in this chapter address NOS and IC, the other focus constructs of this study.

Students in Monica’s classroom did not complete the authentic scientific investigation in its entirety. However, they were able to experience the five features of inquiry, to some extent, throughout the portions of the Fossil Finders unit Monica carried out. Further, there was variation in the extent to which inquiry was framed by TD or SC instruction. For example, though students did not engage in pursuing their own research questions, as in the case of open-inquiry, Monica provided them with questions to pursue and opportunities to grapple with data. Further, when students were introduced to fossils for the first time on Day 2, Monica asked students to determine whether the organisms were plants or animals and what their habitat may have looked like. Students had no previous instruction related to these fossilized organisms, and inquiry in this instance may be characterized as TD inquiry. As students became more familiar with the actual fossil samples and learned to identify