Políticas desarrollistas para el sector rural

In keeping with the educational design research (EDR) approach of this

dissertation, it was important to find a practical solution to an educational problem. The researcher, therefore, designed a time-efficient phonemic awareness assessment app that could, in the future, be used by practising teachers in the natural setting of their own classrooms to assess children’s phonemic awareness in a time-efficient manner. Bearing in mind the shortcomings of paper-based assessments outlined in the introduction to this chapter, the researcher investigated the research literature further to examine whether other assessment tools existed that could be administered in a less time-consuming manner. Consequently, computer-based assessments (CBAs) were identified by the researcher as a possible means of assessment that reduces the time teachers need to spend on

administering and collating assessment results. CBAs are defined as ‘any psychological assessment that involves the use of digital technology to collect, process and report the results of that assessment’ (British Psychological Society, 1999, p.11). The four

components of CBA are comprised of (1) assessment generation, (2) assessment delivery, (3) assessment scoring and interpretation, and (4) storage, retrieval and transmission (Singleton et al., 2001).

CBAs are becoming increasingly common in the field of education, and research indicates that such tools offer several advantages over paper-based equivalents (Martin, 2008). Firstly, the computer-based modality can present all test items at once; for

example, verbal instructions and images. Secondly, they allow children to self-administer the assessment and respond via a computer mouse or a touch screen (Singleton, Horne, & Thomas, 1999). Thirdly, they can score and record the responses into a database for later interpretation by teachers (Bjornsson, 2008; Martin, 2008). These features place fewer demands on teacher time than traditional paper-based assessment tools. Additional benefits of CBAs include

 the standardisation of the test environment results in increased consistency and improved objectivity (Bjornsson, 2008)

 more accurate and immediate online scoring (Bridgeman, 2009)

 the fact that minimal training is required for teachers or other school staff in the administration of the assessment (Martin, 2008)

 it is motivating and engaging for children (Ripley, 2008)

 it makes use of technology already available in the classroom (Singleton et al., 1999)

 it is low-cost to implement once created (Tymms, 2001)

Despite the rise in the use of technology in the classroom, however, few CBAs exist to support teachers in measuring the phonological awareness skills of children, with even fewer supporting measurement at the critical level of the phoneme (Carson et al., 2011).

During an investigation of the research literature, a very limited range of phonological awareness CBAs were identified by the researcher. DIBELS (Good & Kaminski, 1996), while not exactly a CBA according to the British Psychological Society definition, is a web-based tool that supports the screening and monitors the progress of a range of early literacy skills (including initial sound fluency and phoneme segmentation fluency) using a data-management system. However, teachers are still required to administer the paper-based assessment and then enter the children’s results into the DIBELS online system.

The Cognitive Profiling System (CoPs) (Singleton, Thomas, & Leedale, 1996) is an example of a computer-based assessment, which was established to identify children presenting with dyslexia. CoPS consists of nine game-like assessments that measure a broad range of skills from visual discrimination to auditory/verbal tests. Like DIBELS, it includes automated scoring and the storage of results; however, this assessment largely provides information on broader cognitive skills and, while CoPs does include an initial phoneme-matching task, other crucial phonemic awareness skills, such as phoneme blending and phoneme segmentation, are not included. Table 4.1 profiles a range of available phonological awareness assessment instruments and outlines the administration time, modality of delivery (paper-based or computer-based) and whether the content of the assessment includes assessment of broader phonological awareness skills or narrower phonemic awareness skills.

Instrument Administration Time (minutes)

Modality Content

Teacher Child Paper Computer Broad Narrow

CTOPP** 30 30 + + TOPA-2+** 30-45 30-45 + + PA Profile 10-20 10-20 + + Yopp-Singer 5-10 5-10 + + PIPA 25-30 25-30 + + PAT2 40 40 + + DIBELS 9 9 + + CoPS** 45-60 + +

Table 4.1 Administration time, modality and content of commonly-used phonological assessment instruments available to classroom teachers

Note. ** indicates that the assessment can be administered on an individual basis or to a small group of children.

During the review of the research literature, the researcher of the current

dissertation identified a CBA tool that is freely available to Australian teachers and is used to screen and monitor children’s phonological awareness skills at the crucial phoneme level. This CBA tool is available as part of an ongoing research project entitled "Raising Reading Achievement in Australian Children: Predicting Literacy Pathways Using Web- Based Screening and Monitoring of Essential Pre-Reading Skills During the Early

Childhood and Schooling Years" led by Dr Karyn Carson. The next section will examine Carson et al.’s (2011) Computer-based Phonological Awareness Screening and Monitoring Assessment (Com-PASMA) in detail. This tool is an integral part of this dissertation as it formed the basis of the iPad-based phonemic awareness assessment app that was designed and implemented by the researcher to assess children’s phonemic awareness skills in both Study One and Study Two.

4.2.1 Limitations of Computer-based Assessment. Although considerable benefits exist when using CBA tools, they are not without their limitations. One key limitation is technology failure. There is always the possibility that glitches can be experienced when trying to administer a CBA (Tymms, 2001). However, implementing pilot studies can minimise such glitches. Glitches that were identified in the pilot study were discussed in Chapter 3.

Furthermore, the reliability of broadband within schools is a serious consideration when administering a CBA tool such as an app. In an Irish context, access to broadband in schools is constantly improving and the Irish government has invested significantly in this area in recent years. Consequently, the researcher did not experience any issues in relation to the use of the Internet while using the iPads; however, this may not be the case in other schools throughout the country.

A further limitation that requires consideration is the fact that the creation of an app, such as the one implemented in this study, can be costly. However, once an initial investment has been made, there is very little cost associated with its future

implementation. There are other limitations to consider in relation to administering a computer-based assessment. It is important to recognise that some children may have insufficient technology skills, and this could pose a problem when they are required to complete an assessment on a tablet device or computer. Therefore, the introduction of the familiarisation task on the iPad-based app was important to ensure that children who had not been exposed to iPads or tablets in the past had an opportunity (outside of the formal assessment) to familiarise themselves with the technology. To try to establish whether children were familiar with using such devices, the researcher asked parents to indicate on the consent form whether their child had used a tablet device or smart phone before. Of the one hundred and seven junior infant children who participated in this research, only 2% of the children had never used such a device according to their parents. With the rise in the

use of technology, over time, lack of exposure to technology will, more than likely, become less of a limitation.

4.3 Carson, Gillon, and Boustead’s (2011) Computer-based Phonological Awareness