PRENSA, INMIGRACIÓN, METÁFORAS Y METONIMIAS (M 2 )

For the survey questionnaire I applied the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS 13) to analyse the information. Approximately a month after I began the fieldwork, though I had not yet received all distributed copies of questionnaire back, I began to carry out a preliminary analysis of the survey information which I mainly generated in the forms of descriptive statistics, frequencies and percentages. Based on the results shown by the analysis, I was able to see the trends of what I should be observing and interviewing the informants about.

Likewise, I began and continued to analyse the information obtained from the observation and interviews throughout the process of data collection (Boyle, 1994; Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995; Roper & Shapira, 2000; Spradley, 1979). The analysis continued until I was writing up the report (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995).

To start the data analysis, Hammersley and Atkinson (1995) suggest that the researcher should read through all data sources, participant observation records, interview records, fieldnotes, fieldwork journal and other material to make sense of the information and to seek for interesting patterns relevant to the study focus. The data are coded and put into particular categories. The researcher then determines similarities, differences, and relationships across the whole categories in order to identify cultural phenomena being researched (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995). This

process of analysis is similar to those indicated by other authors, such as descriptive analysis noted by Boyle (1994), content analysis advised by Germain (1993), ethnographic analysis suggested by Roper and Shapira (2000), as well as the steps of ethnographic analysis indicated by Spradley (1979, 1980). However, each author might favour additional procedures and instructions which are believed to facilitate the completeness of data analysis.

Because I was a novice researcher who was conducting an ethnographic study for the first time, I searched for a simple but effective instruction to analyse ethnographic data. Therefore, I selected to follow the step-by-step ethnographic analysis introduced by Spradley (1979, 1980). This process of analysis consists of domain analysis, taxonomic analysis, componential analysis, and theme analysis.

At the early stage of the data analysis, I used the “domain analysis” to arrange the information gained into categories. This analysis made the initial analysis explicit. It also assisted with making sense of the information gained. Therefore, domain analysis was employed throughout the data analysis. I started with categorising the general information of rubber farming for better understanding of rubber farmers’ work nature and conditions. For instance, after reading through the information from interview transcripts and fieldnotes, I captured that the rubber farmers classified themselves into a few different types. Therefore, I set the cover term “Rubber farmers” using semantic relationship “is a type of” to lead the search for its included terms (the types of rubber farmers). The included terms of this category that I came up with were, 1) independent rubber farmer, 2) Yang Wa, and 3) Kong-Si.

The other domains (or categories) that I noted during the data analysis were, for examples, X is a main task in working in a rubber field, X is a part of a typical working day in a rubber plantation (tapping), X is the rubber farmers’ perception of being healthy, X is an effect of work on health perceived by rubber farmers, X is the way of dealing with a health problem of rubber farmers, X is an effect of rubber farming on rubber farmers’ health as perceived by health workers, and X is the way to deal with rubber farmers’ health as suggested by the health workers.

The results of this acted as the foundation of the further steps of the analysis. Looking back to the types of rubber farmers stated earlier, after I read through the information, I recognised the informants’ inclination to separate the three types of rubber farmers. Therefore, “componential analysis” was set to clarify the dimensions of contrast between the three domains.

Table 3-1 Example I: Analysis

Dimension of Contrast Domains

Field owning Working status Money earned Number of working days/week 1) Work in

own field

yes Independent Receiving all

money earned

2-1-2, or 3-1-3 (work- off-work)

Free to decide working days 2) Yang-Wa Yes/No Partnership with

owner Depending on the agreement with the owner, 60/40, or 50/50 Agreement between the two parties, but usually 2-1-2, or 3-1- 3 (work-off-work)

3) Kong-Si Yes/No Employer-

employee Money earned calculated by number of kilograms of rubber sheets made by each employee Agreement between employer-employee, (workdays could be every day)

Concerning the study focus, the results of the contrast later led to more insight understanding, how the types of rubber farmer affected the health of rubber farmers. Therefore, I looked through each informant’s interview transcript seeking for the relevance of the two domains. Excerpts from interview transcripts revealed that the second and the third groups of rubber farmers perceived that their health was affected by their work to a greater extent than that of the first group.

The rubber price has gone up, but the trees don’t have rubber latex. People [rubber farmers] get sick of it. Go to the field, tap the trees, nothing comes out from it. Feeling tired. Walk past each tree with no hope. No Num yang [rubber latex]. For those who work in their own field, it is fine, but not the same for those who work for others. They need to split the money, feeling hopeless [when get less money]. (PTP, interviewed 11/08/06)

PSA [a subdistrict health staff member who lives locally] advised me to take the muscle relaxant and suggested that I stop working. But I said I couldn’t. It is not my own field… (PTP, interviewed 11/08/05)

The “taxonomy analysis” was employed to expand my understanding of the domains I had identified. For instance, within the three types of the rubber farmers, to illustrate a cultural scene, I conducted a domain analysis focusing on “the stages of the typical day in the rubber field”. The “included terms” revealed from using the domain was;

X is a part of the stages of a typical night in the rubber field

a) Waking up and getting ready b) Going to the field

c) Tapping rubber trees

d) Giving time for the latex to flow e) Collecting rubber latex

f) Selling the rubber product g) Going home

h) Preparing equipment (sharpening knife) ready for the next night in the field

Then I used taxonomy analysis to regroup the included terms and examine if there were any further included terms I could identify. I rearranged the stages of the typical day in the field under three cover terms, “before going into the field”, “in the field", and “leaving the field”.

The stages of typical night in the rubber field

Before going to

the field Leaving the _field

In the field

a b h

c d e f g

Figure 3-3 Example II: Analysis

Stages a, b, and h were put under the cover term “before going to the field”. Stages c, d, and e were under the cover term “in the field”, and f and g were under the cover term “leaving the field”. After I had repeatedly read through interview transcripts and the notes, I found additional included terms for each new cover term revealed.

Under the included term, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, and h, I had added more included terms after repeatedly reading through my notes and interview transcripts.

Before going to the field

a) Waking up and getting ready - Jogging - Drinking coffee - Eating rice mixed with water and sugar Etc. b) Going to the field - walk - motorbike - truck - passenger h) Sharpening knife - do it at home - hire someone to do it

Figure 3-4 Example III: Analysis

I repeated the same process of searching for additional included terms for the newly emerged cover terms, in the field, and going home. For example, under the included term d, “giving time for the latex to flow”, I found out that some rubber farmers went home to take their children to school, some had a rest and had something to eat, and some went to tap rubber trees in another rubber field.

I continually did the taxonomy analysis with the other domain analysis. For example, when I discovered the list of included terms under the cover term, “effect of work on health”, I regrouped them into two main categories, positive and negative perceptions, before I moved on to further analysis.

Effects of work on health

Positive perceptions Negative perceptions

None

Good for health

Muscle pain, body ache

Fatigue/tiredness

Lack of sleep

Injuries Like exercise

Keep body fit

Affects health but normal?

Figure 3-5 Example IV: Analysis

In order to confirm the results as well as sorting, coding and searching for common patterns of the data relevant to the study questions, I as well applied different presentations of the analysed information in different forms. For instance, after skim reading through each interview transcript, I drew the above diagram to facilitate the coding and summarising of the information using the cover term, “the informants’ perception of the effects of the rubber farming on their health”.

The diagram, then, assisted me to see my thoughts more clearly. It aided me to re- think, re-word, and re-sort the information concerning the interest. I created the table to confirm the thoughts revealed in the diagram by making a table to illustrate the same focus, effects of work on health as perceived by the rubber farmers, but this time, I added words excerpted from the interview transcripts and my reflections.

Table 3-2 Example V: Analysis

Cover term: Effects of rubber farming as perceived by rubber farmers

Effects Themes Effects Themes

Work affects only people with health problem, such as gout, asthma

Work affects only people who

‘Pae’

Destructive effects on selective cases

Physical Injuries/Health Conditions

• Thor Yang Deed

• Bitten by Tauy Yai Mun/snake/centipede/ scorpion

• Cut by knife

• Bark falls into eyes

• Eye irritation from bright light of battery headlamp

• Nausea from Than Hin odour

• Dizziness/headache from lack of sleep/rest

• Hair burned by fire of headlamp

• Karma

Psychological problems

Related to - season

- rubber price in the rubber market, - lack of sleep/rest - money shortage - scared of ghosts

(going to the field in the dark)

- scared of strangers - field owning status

Destructive effects-

But some of the health problems indicated by some informants as a small deal, as they do not happen every day.

Frequency?

Some said “get used to it”- familiarity?

It is normal to have Khed Meay

when doing hard work

No way to take the problem away Accepting situation?? Unavoidable?? Severity of health conditions? Destructive effects but not a big deal

It is good for health, no harm

Keep the body fit

It is like having exercise

Constructive effects

To determine, whether or not my reflective thoughts were commonly found indicated in the informants’ interviews, I then went back to each interview transcript, re-reading each one closely, coding what each informant said in relation to each point I had noted. Subsequent to coding each interview transcript individually, “theme analysis”, was applied to compare and contrast the coding of each interview transcript against each other in searching for their common principles and relationship aiming at answering the research question. From the table above, I answered the research question, “What are the rubber farmers’ perceptions of effects of rubber farming on their health?” with four themes, which are constructive effects on health, destructive effects on health, destructive effects on the health of selective cases, or under particular circumstances, and destructive effects on health but are not perceived as major concerns.

The analysis was a dynamic process in which the steps moved back and forth with my intention of answering all of the research questions as well as to verifying the findings.

3.8 Summary

Ethnography and ethnographic methods of data collection and the approach to analysis were appropriately selected for collecting data for the study. The range of methods of data collection and the steps of the analysis complemented each other, contributing to the comprehensiveness and trustworthiness of the study information and findings.

Chapter 4: Rubber farming and rubber farmers: