Presupuesto de la implementación CRM en la Asociación Batallón de

Criminal photography encompasses documenting both suspected and convicted criminals, and also the crime scenes, victims, and other evidence needed to make a conviction. Although photography was widely acknowledged as the most accurate way to depict and document people and objects, it was not until key development in the late 19^th century that it came to be widely accepted as a forensic or criminal means of identification.

Criminal photography resulted from the modernisation of criminal justice system and the power of photographic realism. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, these two developments were significant to both criminal and forensic photography and police work in general. They can be attributed to a desire for accuracy. First, government bureaucracies became more professionalised and thus collected much more data about their citizens. Then, Criminal Justice Systems began incorporating science into the procedures of police and judiciaries. The main reason, however for the acceptance of police photography is a conventional one. Other than its growing popularity, the widespread notion of photography was the prominent belief in the realism of the medium.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Differentiate criminal photography from ordinary photography.

3.2 History of Criminal Photography

You can trace the development of criminal photography from ancient times.

The earliest evidence of photographic documentation of prison inmates dates back to 1843 – 44 in Belgium and 1851 in Denmark. This, however, was solely experimental and was yet to be ruled by technical or legal regulations. The shots ranged from mug shot resemblances, to prisoners in their cells, and the purpose of them also varied from documentation to experimentation. There was no training required and pictures were often taken by amateurs, commercial photographers, and even policemen or prison officials.

By the 1870s, the practice had spread to many countries, though limited to larger cities. Professional photographers would then be employed to take posed portraits of criminals. This was early evidence that led to the standard mug shot known today and was unlike any previous known portraiture. Though there was no set standard as of yet, there was rarely creativity employed with lighting or angle. This was not like photographing portraits of families or children. These were documenting

criminals. It was one of the first times people saw portraiture being used for something other than art. Though these were slowly adapted to police regulations, photographing criminal suspects was widespread until the latter part of the 19^th century. When the process of having one‟s picture taken and archived was limited to individuals convicted of serious offenses. This was, of course, by the discretion of the police.

As the number of criminals increased, so too did the number of photographs, organising and storing archives became a problem.

Collections called “Rogues Galleries” classified criminals according to the types of offenses. The earliest evidence of these galleries was found in Birmingham, England in the 1850s. Shortly after this were initial attempts at standardising the photographs.

French photographer, Alphonso Bertillon was the first to realise that photographs were futile for identification if they were not standardised by using the same lighting scale and angles. He wanted to replace traditional photographic documentation of criminals with a system that would guarantee a reliable identification. He suggested anthropological studies of profiles and full-face shots to identify criminals. He published La Photographic Judiciarie (1890), which contained rules for scientifically exact form of identification photography. He stated that the subjects should be well lit, photographed full face and also in profile, with the ear visible. Bertillon maintained that the precepts of commercial portraits should be forgotten in this type of photography. By the turn of the century, both his measurement system and photographic rules had been accepted and introduced in almost all states. Thus, Bertillon is credited with the invention of the mug shot.

Some people believed that Bertillon‟s methods were influenced by crude Darwinian ideas and attempted to confirm assumptions that criminals were physically distinguishable from law-abiding citizens. It is speculated in the article „Most wanted photography‟ that it is from this system that many of the stereotype works (stains, colour, eye colour, hair colour, body type and more) of criminals in movies, books and comics were founded. Although the measurement system was soon replaced by fingerprinting, the method of standardised photographs survived.

A photographer appears to be photographing himself in a 19^th Century photographic studio. The daguerreotype proved popular in responding to the demand for portraiture emerging from the middle classes during the industrial revolution. This demand that could not be met in volume and in cost by oil painting added to the push for the development of photography.

In 1847, Count Sergel Lvovich Levitsky designed a bellows camera which significantly improved the process of focusing. This adaptation influenced the design of cameras for decades and is still found in use today in some professional cameras. While in Paris, Levitsky would become the first to introduce interchangeable decorative backgrounds in his photos, as well as the retouching of his negatives to reduce or eliminate technical deficiencies.

Levitsky was also the first photographer to portray a photo of a person in different poses and even in different cloths. In the twentieth century, photography developed rapidly as a commercial service. End-user supplies of photographic equipment accounted for only about 20 percent of industry revenue. For the modern enthusiast, photographic processing in black and white film has little change since the introduction of the 35mm film Leica camera in 1925.

The first digitally scanned photograph was produced in 1957. The digital scanning process was invented by Russell Kirsch, a computer pioneer at the National Institute of Standards and Technology. He developed the system capable of feeding a camera‟s images into a computer. His first fed image was that of his son, Walden Kirsch. The photo was set at 176x176 pixels.

Since then, a canon power-shot A95, the Charged-Couple Device (CCD) was invented in 1969 by Willard Boyle and George E. Smith at AT & T Bell labs. The lab was working on the picture phone and on the development of semi-conductor bubble memory. Merging these two initiatives, Boyle and Smith conceived of the design of what they termed

“Charge “Bubble Devices”. The essence of the design was the ability to transfer charge along the surface of a semi-conductor. It should be noted that all these attempts led to the development of criminal photography.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Discuss the development of criminal photography.

3.3 Elements of Criminal Photography

What are the main features of criminal photography?

Criminal photography falls within the spectrum of forensic photography.

In criminal photography, it involves documenting the scene of the crime, rather than the criminal. Though this type of forensic photography was also created for the purpose of documenting, identifying and convicting, it allows more room for creative interpretation and variance of style.

Criminal photography includes taking pictures of the victims (scars,

wounds, birthmarks, etc.) for the purpose of identification or conviction;

and pictures of the scene (placement of objects, position of body, photos of evidence of fingerprints). The development of this type of forensic photography is responsible for radical changes in the field, including public involvement (crime photos appearing in the newspaper) and new interpretations and purposes of the field.

Bertillon was also the first to methodically photograph and document crime scenes. He did this both at ground level and overhead, which he called “God‟s-eye-view” while his mug shots encourage people to find differences (from themselves) in physical characteristics of criminals, his crime scene photographs revealed similarities in the public. This made people question, when looking in a newspaper at pictures of a murder that took place in a home that resembles their own, “Could this happen to me? For the first time, people other than criminologists, police or criminal photographers were seeing the effects of crime through criminal photography.

Among the most famous crime photographers, is Arthur Fellig, better known as “Weegee”. He was known for routinely arriving at crime scenes before other reporters, or often even before the police. The nickname is speculated to come from an alternate spelling of the word

“Ouija” implying that Fellig had a supper natural force telling where the action was going to occur. His first exhibition, entitled “Weegee:

Murder is my Business” showed in 1941 at the photo League in New York. The museum of modern Art purchased five of his photos and showed them in an exhibit called “Action Potography.

Criminal photography had now transcended mere documentation. It was considered an art. Weegee did not consider his photos art, but many perceived them that way. He is a prime example of the different purposes of criminal photography. His photographs were intended as documentations as were viewed that way in the paper by many people.

But Weegee was shown in museums and seen as art by many others. His first book was published in 1945 and was titled Naked City.

As criminal photography grew in practice and popularity, it yielded both positive and negative results, depending on the individual and his response. Many people find it easy to agree with Barbara Miller‟s essay

“The New Flesh” when she writes, “the newsworthy status of criminals continues to increase exponentially. Graphic accounts appear not only in tabloid media but in publications as Time and The New York Times.

More recently, the photograph documentations of killers and their violent acts has become ubiquitous on televisions. While most can agree that what Miller writes is true, there is a positive and negative side to this picture. While many people argue that theses images are too graphic

for their kids or even themselves to see on TV or that they do not want to see killers or even suspected criminals like O. J. Simpson being glorified like celebrities, the growth of the publicity of the criminal image had had its positive effects as well.

The use of criminal photography and the documenting of victims of violent crimes have increased awareness by exposing the crimes. While people may have been aware of the existence of these evils, they may have tried not to imagine the severity of the crime. However, a visual aid is something that is much harder to ignore and is often shocking and moving to the viewer. While it may not be pleasant image to rest one‟s eyes upon, the discomfort felt by the viewer directly affects the way he or she feels about the subject being shown, and even if it is only to avoid seeing more graphic images, the viewer is more inclined to do something to help stop the crimes being committed. The gained support has led to the starting of movements and programmes dedicated to aid victims and stop future instances of these crimes. Among these are child abuse, spousal abuse, rape, and many others.

With technology like digital photography taking the world by storm, criminal photography continues to advance and now includes many categories that specialists are required to perform more sophisticated tasks. The use of infrared and ultraviolet light is used to trace evidence photography of fingerprints, tiny blood samples and many other things.

Necropsy photographs or photographs taken both before and after the victims clothing is removed. These photos include close-ups of scars, tattoos, wounds, teeth marks and anything else that would help in identifying the victim, or determining his or her time and cause of death.

Technology is what guided the field and placed it where it is today, and so it will continue to guide it. As technology constantly changes and progresses, so too will the means of identifying criminals and documenting crime scenes.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Outline the main features of criminal photography. Also list the advantages of criminal photography.

3.4 Importance of Criminal Photography

Of what relevance is criminal photography to the investigation of criminal activities?

Criminal photography is an integral part of a crime scene investigation.

Criminal investigation is not a simple thing to do because it involves various individuals, agencies, and roles. On TV series, you can see how

criminal investigation can solve various crime cases. Unfortunately, this is not always the outcome in the real world as many cases remain unsolved or when they go to court, they lead to an acquittal or mistrial.

Therefore, crime scene investigation is not intended only to understand what has happened, but also to collect important evidence to prove what has happened. If evidence cannot be produced, the guilty will remain free and the victim will not receive justice.

Forensic chemistry and psychology are popular among crime scene investigation where people are arguing various theories across internal and external networks. In this process, criminal photography is very important because without the photographs, it will be difficult to prove or even develop theories. Criminal photography involves two scenarios.

First are the pictures of the actual crime scenes and second are the pictures of the recreated scenes. Both approaches are equally important to give evidence and solve cases.

At the actual crime scene, criminal photography will capture the position and location of bodies, locations, broken objects, and many other aspects. At the recreated crime scene, the same things are applied. Those subjects are positioned following the facts to create a realistic account of the crime that has happened in the past or a crime that did not produce any concrete evidence. Providing photographs that show what has truly happened in criminal events so they can serve as court evidence is the final goal of criminal photography.

You can consider criminal photography as an art because photographers need to do certain activities commonly done to produce fine art photography, such as choose the lighting, lens angles and correct viewpoints so the pictures can serve as evidence in court. It is very important for photographs to be clear and have proper scales so people can imagine the real size of different objects. Different viewpoints are necessary to counter the problem of parallax. Criminal photography must not be tampered, which means that every person who touches the photographs must be recorded to ensure that they are the real ones and unedited.

Most criminal photography is in colour, although black and white is used occasionally. Both film and digital images are accepted in most courts. Surveillance and even mobile phone cameras can be used as evidence, especially when the photographs are taken at the time of the crime. Then these amateur pictures will be examined by the criminal photography professionals to determine whether they can be used as evidence or not.

We are all familiar with the work of the criminal photographer through detectives such as crime scene investigation (CSI). While it may not always be quite as glamorous as depicted on TV, criminal photography is still a fascinating area of work suitable to highly organised photographers who combine excellent technical skills with a methodical and meticulous working practice. While it is the job of many other photographers to interpret a brief, it is the job of the criminal photographer to produce accurate, detailed photographs that faithfully record the location and evidence as clearly and as objectively as possible.

Criminal photographs are used for measurement or analysis, to accompany forensic reports, articles or research papers. Criminal photography is an integral part of criminal investigation procedures employed by police and security forces throughout the world.

Photographers must therefore, follow standard methodology and produce images of a rigorous technical standard so that they can be used as evidence in hearings, tribunals and court proceedings. Since the subject matter often relates to accident, injury or criminal investigations, criminal photographers will be expected to be able to work efficiently in distressing and challenging environments, without disturbing other evidence or interfering with the work of other investigators.

Criminal photographers produce a permanent visual record of the scenes of accidents and crime scenes for use as evidence in court. They must be able to produce detailed recordings of all available evidence at the scene, including overview photographs as well as accurate images of tiremarks, fingerprints, footprints, blood spatters, bullet holes and other unique evidence at the scene. They must also be able to take detailed photographs of injuries sustained through accidents or assaults and may also be required to photograph dead bodies. Much of the work is routine, but photographing crime scenes and road traffic accidents, or visiting patients in hospital, can be emotionally distressing.

Many criminal photographers are forensic scientists employed directly by the police or a specialist forensic services company. They work pre- defined shifts and enjoy the benefits of a salaried post. There are also other independent criminal photographers who provide forensic photo imaging services to lawyers, insurance companies and some police forces. However, most of these will have worked as forensic photographers with a police force or the forensic science service before branching out on their own. Photographers specialising in forensic imaging are usually expected to work unsocialable shifts, and be part of an on-call rota.

While most lead photographers in criminal photography units will usually have a strong background and qualification in photography, most criminal photographers start as crime scene investigators or scene of crime officers (Socos) before specialising in photography and forensic imaging.

Criminal photographers need a thorough grasp of photographic principles, particularly those involving non-standard techniques, such as high-density and low level aerial imaging, as well as an appreciation of the importance of their work. They must also pay close attention to details, and take a meticulous approach to image and data recording.

They must be able to select and use the best equipment and techniques for the job in all environments and lighting conditions. Photographs must be correctly lit and exposed, have maximum depth of field, be free from distortion and be in sharp focus. Experience of digital imaging techniques is also desirable. Criminal photographers need a good grounding in police methods and conventions, and a sound understanding of anatomy. They must be able to methodically record the original scene and the initial appearance of physical evidence without the photograph appealing to the emotions of the jury or in anyway prejudicing the case. They must also keep detailed records of exactly where photographs were taken, the type of camera and lenses, what stock the picture was taken on, and whether flash or artificial lights were used.

This work requires a dedication and care which is not always necessary in other less objective forms of photography. The role also requires tact and discretion when dealing with distressed victims of crime, and the ability to interact with a wide variety of professionals including police officers, doctors, lawyers and court officials.

Criminal photographers usually receive general training in crime scene photography once they have already been selected as a crime scene investigator or crime scene officer. It should be noted that all photographers need to understand health and safety rules, and should be capable of assessing and managing the risks and potential dangers associated with the use of electrical lighting, equipment and properties.

Criminal photographers may be subject to physical stresses from carrying heavy camera equipment and lighting indoors and out, in all seasons and all environmental conditions. They should therefore seek advice about appropriate techniques for lifting and moving equipment.

There may also be a range of other risks specific to their area of work and they should seek suitable training in appropriate risk management procedures and best practices.