PRINCIPIO DE TRIANGULACIÓN

The final theme, socio-cultural, refers to the extent to which people engage with each other, both on a social and economic level. There has recently been resurgence in incorporating social dimensions into economics (see Section 4.15). Its resurgence is due to the fact that many resource use problems can be traced in part to some elements of this dimension, whether it is difference in religion, ethics, cultural diversity and social institutions (Berkes and Folke, 1992). From this flows the fact that people make their decisions as a result of the values, habits and structures they find themselves surrounded by (Court, cited by Solow, 1985, p. 330). This suggests that these components are equally important in determining progress.

However, as the review in Section 4.12 illustrates, the varied theoretical underpinnings exemplified by the many existing definitions of the concept, makes it quite problematic. Aside from the definitional problems, there also exists widespread debate as to whether SC actually influences wellbeing. For instance, the results on an Australian study showed that SC did not necessarily have a direct impact on wellbeing. Instead, it was viewed as an intermediate variable, influencing the causal link between various indicators of wellbeing (Vinson, 2004). While acknowledging these complexities, this study agrees with the recent resurgence of SC in national progress analysis, and views it as an area that must be incorporated.

Given this, of the three main competing concepts reviewed in Chapter 4, the present research concluded that the best approach to adopt for the SC concept involved Bourdieu’s definition of SC:

… the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to the possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalised relationships of mutual acquaintance andrecognition – or in other words, to membership in a group – which provides each of its members with the backing of the collectivity-owned(sic) capital, a “credential” which entitles then to credit, in the various senses of the word. (Bourdieu, 1985, pp. 248-249)

For Bourdieu building up networks, which has traditionally been viewed as the key to SC, is a necessary but ultimately not sufficient condition. Instead, the effectiveness of networks depends upon the extent of access to resources it provides. Consequently, any accurate indicator of progress must include an access to resources component.

The review in Section 4.12 also identified institutional theory as another aspect in determining the social contribution to progress. Under this approach the strength of community networks reflect the quality of the political, legal and individual environment, under which one resides (North, 1990). The economic impact of SC and institutions was reinforced by Knack and Keefer’s (1997) study.

The implications of Knack and Keefer’s (1997) study for the present research are twofold. Firstly, that institutional ineffectiveness constitutes barriers to progress, and secondly, that greater participation in horizontal associations may be counterproductive, highlighting that associations (networks) alone are not sufficient for increased progress. As outlined in Section 4.17, the socio-cultural environment will be presented as a function of three dimensions that incorporate both inputs and outcomes. They are: social connectedness, institutional quality (political and legal), and economic security. The first dimension is social connectedness. If there were no real sense of nexus between people, then apart from family, little trust would exist, especially to those with power. This may lead to people only feeling good about what they themselves can provide. Thus, a sense of national wellbeing lies in the connections that exist at a personal and broader social level (Cox, 1998). Although arguments exist as to whether

trust can be viewed as a cause or effect,149 it has nevertheless been used in many national analyses.150 It also acts as a complement to a country’s institutions. For instance, as Knight (1992) claims, even though a society may have strong institutions, if it is based on fear and power and not on trust, it can lead to unjust societies.

Ideally, a more accurate picture of SC would distinguish between the SC embodied in sports clubs and churches and those resource-oriented groups dealing with water and irrigation management (Pretty and Ward, 2001). Although greater social connectedness may not help remove uncertainty, which represents market failure, it can help overcome this by creating mutual knowledge and enforcing behavioural expectations leading to lower transaction costs (Grootaert, 1998). The current study will employ two characteristics as a heuristic guide to this singular dimension:

• Social cohesion: high levels of social cohesion allow societies to organise collective action that can help reduce uncertainty. This characteristic will focus on the extent of group memberships, individual perceptions of satisfaction and work valuation (both market and non-market).

• Social disconnection: refers to the negative externalities, usually resulting from an absence of social connectedness, and manifests itself via prisoners, suicide rates, etc. These characteristics reflect the push-pull nature of this dimension. The second dimension, institutional quality (political and legal), assesses any institutional effects on human interaction. Quite simply, the role of institutions not only helps shape behaviour but also endeavours to prevent progress depletion from occurring especially from instances emanating from corruption and rule of law (property rights). As Hardin (1968) illustrated, a lack of property rights can lead to the degradation of natural resources. Here, the ‘Tragedy of the Commons’ problem emerges, as institutions exercise no guardianship over natural resources. Thus, a lack of an adequate framework for the distribution of the costs results in over-exploitation.151

149

Refer to Woolcock (2001) who views trust as not part of SC but an outcome of repeated interactions, reputable legal institutions, etc.

150

These studies were mentioned in the previous chapter (see Section 4.15). 151

As mentioned in Section 4.12 (Footnote 128) this is a contested assertion. Even when strong institutions exist (such as in Australia and US) natural resource degradation can still occur due to the markets inability to operate effectively in the allocation of resources.

The final dimension, economic security, reflects Bourdieu’s concept as it provides an indication of people’s access or command over resources. This reflects the power relations inherent in SC. For instance, a lack of access to resources demonstrates that one is at the poor end of power relations in society (DeFillipis, 2001). The inclusion of this concept assumes that the RIE is both an outcome and a cause of the same policies that emerge from power relations. Although this is to be expected, given the pervasive nature of power relations, the desire of the RIEto identify and ultimately change these power relations can be demonstrated by the explicit link that exists between SC and economic security. Specifically, this can be achieved via focusing on the extent to which people are engaged in and benefit from economic activity (market and non- market), for instance, a person’s financial security against economic collapse. To accurately capture the extent of people’s command over resources this dimension is split into two characteristics, comprising:

• Unemployment: helps assess the extent of engagement in economic activity. Specifically, this refers to the non-utilisation and under-utilisation of its labour force which greatly affects the attainment of economic security.

• Financial pressures: can be both a consequence of excess material aspects of progress or due to living in squalid conditions. It deals with poverty and longer working hours, all extra burdens on people’s wellbeing.

Having outlined and justified the reasons for including the relevant areas, themes, dimensions and characteristics to incorporate into the conceptual progress framework, the following section will list the specific variables this study considers to be relevant to the characteristics and dimensions mentioned above.