3. Método
3.5. Procedimiento
3.5.3 Procedimientos en la etapa principal
It can be deduced from the preceding discussion that as th e world enters the third decade of HIV/AIDS, literature shows that this is the most devastating disease humanity has ever faced. From what has been discussed, it is evident that there are urgent appeals to support these badly affected communities, bringing awareness to the young generation in the form of programmes that are inclusive in the school curriculum.
On the other hand, the discussion provided an indication that stigmatising and discriminating those who are infected by the pandemic, may not yield any results except causing pain and agony, above all despair in the
community.
In chapter three the literature on research methodology will be reviewed in order to decide on the choice of relevant methodology for this research.
The researcher begins by exploring the concept of research paradigms in order to develop an appropriate research protocol
.
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter literature will be reviewed on research methodology,
especially the qualitative and quantitative research methods. The aim is to develop an appropriate research framework to collect and analyse data.
The data collected and analysed will be used to assess the need for HIV/AIDS-programmes as part of curricula in the Intermediate Phase of education.
3.2 Research paradigms
In order to understand the concept of a research paradigm, it is necessary to first define research. According to Bruce (1978:1) research is a
“systematic attempt to provide answers to questions. Such answers may be abstract and general as is often the case in basic research, or they may be highly concrete and specific as is often the case in demonstration or applied research. In both kinds of research, the investigator uncovers facts and then formulates a generalization based on the interpretation of those facts”.
This is supported by Leedy (1997:3) as quoted in Kgalema (2001:33):
Research is a “rigorous process that is systematic and is concerned with the collection and analysis of data”.
In this study there will be a systematic collection and analysis of data from intermediate educators and learners regarding their HIV/AIDS experiences and feelings respectively, in order to describe and assess the need for implementing it in the HIV/AIDS curriculum. The main purpose is to answer the research question posed in chapter one (see 1.3, p 2).
The collection and handling of data to answer the research question will be regulated by a particular research paradigm or combination of both paradigms. As to whe ther a single paradigm or combination of both will be used, will be reflected in another subsection (see 3.4, p 43).
A research paradigm is defined as a philosophical, ideological and methodological group activity with the aim of producing knowledge,
(Creswell 1994:1). Cresswell further maintains that scientific knowledge, a commodity of the scientific community, is enshrined in rules and theory.
According to Mouton (1996:204) as cited by Kgalema (2001:34) the concept of research paradigms means a “logical systematic and planned theoretical framework by which and through which the collection and analysis of data are directed to solve a research problem. From the above, one can deduce that there is more than one research paradigm that can be chosen to direct the process of collecting and interpreting data.
3.3 Types of research paradigms
The are two types of research paradigms, i.e. qualitative and quantitative research. These research paradigms are identified by the following
authors: Creswell (1994:1-2), Richard (1990:100-101), Strauss and Corbin (1990:17-19).
Each of these research paradigms will be discussed with the purpose of choosing the one best suitable for this study. However, in certain
circumstances, both paradigms can be used to collect data. That will be seen here under as the research unfolds.
3.3.1 Quantitative research paradigms
The quantitative research paradigm attempts to interpret human action in terms of numerical values or expressions. According to Creswell (1994:2) “
… it is an enquiry into a social or human problem, based on testing a
theory composed of variables, measured with numbers, in order to
determine whether the predictive generalizations of the theory hold true”.
It is the paradigm whereby the reality is obje ctive and singular, not part of the researcher. It’s scientist’s philosophical point of view is neutral. Data is gathered objectively from the perspective of a hypothesis or question that is deductively derived from theory or other observations. The
viewpoint of the person observed or whose behaviour is measured is not considered. Therefore, this research paradigm suggests that there is an absolute reality, independent of informants and researchers.
If the quantitative research paradigm is to be applied to the research problem in this study, it would mean that a questionnaire will be used.
And this research paradigm will give the researcher the knowledge of facts and causes about the respondents. To lead the reader in this study, it is imperative to mention the components of the quantitative research: e.g.
experiments, hypothesis, and questionnaires.
3.3.2 Qualitative research paradigms
Sprinthall (1990:100) state that qualitative methods “are approaches used to systematically gather data, but the data are purely descriptive and therefore not numerical”. They further state that “the data in qualitative research are made up of written descriptions of people, events, opinions, attitudes, and environments, or combinations of these”. The data may be derived from direct observations of an individual’s behaviour, from
interviews, from written opinions, or from public documents.
Creswell (1994:1-2) supports the above by saying: “This study is defined as an enquiry process of understanding a social or human problem, based on building a complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed views of informants, and conducted in a natural setting”.
According to Baker (1999:240) “the simplest definition of qualitative research involves the fact that the findings of a qualitative study are presented not in numbers, but solely in words”.
Qualitative research is the research about the situations of persons and how these persons contract meaning out of their social interaction. The informant’s subjective view of reality is considered to be the focal point of the qualitative research. It is the paradigm that seeks to understand phenomena in their entirety in order to develop a complete understanding of a person, programme, or situation. Qualitative research is intended to understand phenomena in their naturally occurring states. It is a
discovery-orientated approach in the natural environment.
The intention of the researcher in this study is to collect opinions, knowledge and experiences of learners and educators about HIV/AIDS awareness. The findings will predict whether it is necessary to include HIV/AIDS-programmes in the school curricula, starting from the
Intermediate Phase. For the purpose of leading the reader in this study, it is important to cite the components of qualitative research, those are observations, interviews, documents, and visual materials.
According to Baker (1999:242) qualitative research of all types assumes a more naturalistic approach than does quantitative research:
“Its aim is to construct meaning from social environment”.
3.4 Reason for choosing both quantitive and qualitative research paradigms
In this study, both quantitative and qualitative research approaches will be used. This choice is informed by the following reasons, i.e.
methodological assumptions of the quantitative and qualitative paradigms.
The quantitative research method is closer to the real meaning of social existence.
The focus of qualitative research is on participants’ perceptions and experiences, and the way they make sense of their lives. In that way, the researcher will be able to realise and understand their understanding about the impact of HIV/AIDS, as such the data gathered will determine whether the HIV/AIDS-programmes must be included in the school curriculum at the Intermediate Phase. The nature of the problem is an important factor that influences the choice of both quantitative and qualitative paradigms. For quantitative research, questionnaires will be used in the Intermediate Phase grades to gain the attitudes, opinions, and understanding of HIV/AIDS by grades four, five and six learners. On the other hand exploratory research will be done and gain experience and understanding of educators about the pandemic, by conducting interviews among Intermediate Phase educators.
Another reason that influenced the choice of both paradigms is the psychological attributes to both research methods. In quantitative
research, the questionnaire may take a short period of time to cover all the grades in the Intermediate Phase. With regard to qualitative research, the interviews with educators in the Intermediate Phase and the description of their feelings and opinions will contribute to the results. For the reader to follow the path of the research, it is important to indicate that the model of combining the two paradigms is called “mixed-methodology design”.
• Advantages of using a mixed-methodology design:
- Using combined paradigms prevent biased findings.
- It develops and enhances the understanding of social phenomena.
- Expansion, wherein the mixed methods add to the scope and breadth of a study.
Creswell (1994:175) supports the combination of the two paradigms, it is
“complimentary in that overlapping and different facets of a phenomenon may e merge, i.e. peeling the layers of an onion”. Creswell further argues that the mixed methods may have several purposes like triangulating or converging findings, elaborating on results, using one method to inform another, discovering paradox or contradiction, and extending the breadth of the enquiry.
3.5 Trustworthiness
According to Baker (1999:245) in undertaking the research, “there is concern about the trustworthiness of the data being gathered, which can become more dependable if the researcher has kept careful notes and an audit trail”. That is, issues of reliability and validity have to be addressed convincingly. This is supported by Silverman (1993:10) as cited by
Kgalema (2001:37): “The qualitative research paradigm is concerned with the trustworthiness or authenticity rather than the reliability and validity of the data collected”.
From the above one can deduce that the researcher must develop a convincing data collection and data analysis process that will prove without doubt that the inclusion of HIV/AIDS-programmes in the school curricula can create awareness and help in reducing the spread of the HIV/AIDS virus.
In this study, trustworthiness is addressed in a number of ways, namely, by having a focus group comprised of Intermediate Phase e ducators.
Secondly, the questionnaires will be distributed among grade four, five and six learners to be answered. The questionnaires will be developed in consultation with the Statistical Consultation Services of the Rand Afrikaanse University. Another route of ensuring trustworthiness is by using two tape-recorders during interviews, because the researcher will
not be able to remember everything that is said. Again, one tape -recorder may perhaps experience technical faults.
After the interviews, the tapes will be transcribed by the researcher for the purpose of analysis. The transcriptions will be analysed independently by the researcher and the external decoder. Categories and themes emerging from responses will be compared to reach consensus on the findings. This will help to ensure the trustworthiness of the results.
3.6 Triangulation
Triangulation is the process in which the researcher gathers evidence from multiple sources to address the question(s) at hand from different points of view. According to Fetterman (1989:89) as cited by Baker (1999:255) “…
this brings together different types of evidence in order to test sources of information against each other”.
In this study, two research paradigms to collect data from different perspectives have been applied. In this regard, Baker (1999:256) says:
“Triangulation can bring together quantitative and qualitative data drawn from distinctly different research methods. These methods could include combining qualitative observation techniques with quantitative ones”.
By triangulating evidence, the researcher can prove or disprove his or her hypothesis. That is, data from Intermediate Phase educators will be compared with data from Intermediate Phase learners in order to ensure trustworthiness.
To support the above, the following are the purposes for triangulation:
• Triangulation in the classic sense of seeking convergence of results.
• Developmentally, wherein the first method is used sequentially to help inform the second method.
• Initiation, wherein c ontradictions and fresh perspectives emerge.
• Expansion, wherein the mixed-methods add scope and breadth to a study.
3.7 Ethical considerations
The matter of ethics is an important one for educational researchers.
Because the subject of study is the learning, experiences and opinions of human beings, often children or adults, the nature of such research may embarrass, hurt, frighten, impose on, or otherwise, negatively affect the lives of the people who are making the research possible through their participation. The researcher should endeavour to respect the rights of participants.
Bruce (1978:16) maintains that to safeguard the privacy of the subject,
“the researcher should take care to avoid asking unnecessary questions , obtain direct consent for participation from adults and consent from parents and teachers for children”.
In this study, the objectives of the research have been articulated to the informants so that it is clearly understood. A consent for participation was sought from the informants. All data collection devices and activities, verbatim transcriptions and written interpretations, and reports will be made known to the informants. The informant’ s rights, interests and wishes will be considered first when choices are made regardin g reporting the data.
3.8 Methods of data collection
In this subsection, methods and techniques of data collection, that will yield quantitative and qualitative data regarding the research problem presented in this study, are discussed.
In quantitative research, a questionnaire as a method of data collection was used. With regard to the qualitative research method, there are two
main methods of data collection, namely observation and interviews, of which, for the purpose of this study, the interview method is used because of accessibility to participants. Questionnaires and interviews can also be used to discover what experiences have taken place and what is occurring at the present. According to Bruce (1978:197) “Questionnaires and
interviews are a way of getting data about persons by asking them rather than watching them behave”.
3.8.1 Group – administered Questionnaire
This is another mode of doing a survey. In the questionnaire, questions are written down and the respondent reads them and gives written answers. Questionnaires may be administered to a group or sent to individuals to be filled out on their own.
In this study, the questionnaires will be administered to the entire Intermediate Phase in a school.
According to Baker (1999:206-207) questionnaires takes the following construction and format:
• “Include only questions which will address your research concerns and which you plan to analyse.
• Make the questionnaire as appealing as possible to the respondents.
• Keep the questionnaire as short as will suffice to elicit the information necessary to analyse the primary research concern.
• If the questionnaire is self-administered, keep the instructions brief but make sure they contain all the information required.
• How and where does the respondent give his or her answer? Check the box, circle the correct response, etc”.
In this study, the purpose and the importance of the research will be clearly and simply stated. In this case the purpose is to seek data to identify whether there is an aware ness regarding the disease HIV/AIDS.
According to Baker (1999:209) “Questionnaires with numerous
open-ended questions often are returned with many questions left blank”. Baker further maintains that it takes much more time and thought for the
respondent to generate a written response than to merely check an offered response.
3.8.2 Interview
According to Baker (1999:220) “An interview is a piece of social interaction with one person asking another a number of questions and the other person giving answers”. There are two types of interviews, namely face-to-face and focus group interviews. In this regard, Kgalema (2001:40)
maintains that “individual interviews are similar to focus group interviews except that in an individual interview there is only one person face -to-face with the researcher”.
In this case the decision is taken to use the focus group interview because it shares qualities of qualitative research in that they are more natural and unobstructive in terms of the way the conversations take place. Face -to-face individual interviews often limit free expressions.
According to Baker (1999:225) “a focus group can dig more deeply into an interest area”. Baker further maintains that discussions that generate impressions and focus on interests may lead to the creation and suggestion of new and innovative ideas.
3.8.2.1 Focus Group Interviews
Focus group interviews will be conducted with the educators. The educators will be from the different grades in the Intermediate-Phase.
Focus groups are useful when a researcher wants to draw together background information on an issue.
Strauss and Corbin (1990:18) and Pattan (1999:152) as quoted in
Kgalema (2001:40) have noted that “interviews are powerful tools to yield qualitative data and the focus group interviews have that added quality”.
Using focus groups, more ideas and information will flow out of this combined interview environment. Baker (1999:225) says “focus groups may bring forth unexpected “out of the blue” ideas”.
This means that each member is given opportunity to substantiate and / or counteract opinions as members of the group; it is important to
consider not only the qualities of individuals but how those individuals will interact as a group.
The moderator needs to be able to enforce the rule that a member’s personal feelings, when expressed, cannot be discounted or rejected by other members.
In this study, there will be five interview research questions. The questions will be opened-ended type questions to facilitate opinions, feelings,
impressions and value appreciation in a more spontaneous way. Probing questions will be asked depending on the responses of the participants.
3.8.2.2 The size of the groups
Baker (1999:226) says a focus group is generally composed of 6 to 12 people, selected by a researcher, who is knowledgeable about or have an interest in the subject. Ertmer (1997:162) as quoted in Kgalema (2001:42) maintains that “a focus group size of five to ten members is preferred in order to afford members maximum oppo rtunity to participate in the discussion”.
Because there is no agreement among the authors concerning the exact size of the focus group, Kruger (1993:68) as quoted by Kgalema (2001:42) is of the opinion that the size of the focus group must be manageable and
small to allow members’ participation. In this study, focus groups of at least 6 members (educators) were chosen, because the number of educators in the Intermediate Phases normally do not exceed six.
At the meeting, the interviewer again should brief the respondents as to the nature or purpose of the interview and attempt to make the
respondents feel at ease. This is supported by Baker (1999:227): “The environment of a focus group should be non-threatening and as pleasing as possible”. In this study, the participants will wear name tags so that they can easily address each other. They will be arranged in a circle to allow them to see one another.
3.8.2.3 Sampling procedure
In going through sampling procedure, one will commence by defining the population of the target group. Bruce (1978:227) says the population used in a questionnaire or interview study is that group about which the
In going through sampling procedure, one will commence by defining the population of the target group. Bruce (1978:227) says the population used in a questionnaire or interview study is that group about which the