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Taking! the! premise! that! urban! greening! may! be! a! viable! response! to! the! challenges! facing! Australian! cities,! a! preliminary! review! of! literature! provides! insight! into! several! potential! challenges! preventing! the! adoption! of! such! a! strategy! in! Australia.! These! challenges! are! subsequently! confirmed! in! stakeholder! workshops! with! government,! industry! and! academic! workshops!in!Perth!and!Brisbane,!and!discussed!in!the!following!paragraphs.!

In! the! literature,! several! potential! challenges! to! urban! greening! are! evident.! These! include! a! tension! between! increasing! urban! densities,! and! providing! adequate! greenspace;! technical! barriers! relating! to! a! lack! of! local! experience! and! knowledge;! and! institutional! barriers! to! the! adoption! of! policies! and! practices! that! would! enable!the!use!of!urban!nature!as!a!response!to! urban!challenges.!

Gleeson!(2008)!argues!against!the!prevailing!yet!overLsimplified!notion!that!dense!development! is!more!sustainable.!HighLdensity!areas!can!be!highly!unsustainable!and!exacerbate!challenges! faces!if!they!are!carLdependent,!do!not!foster!social!connection,!and!are!polluted.!To!this,!could! be!added!if!there!is!an!absence!of!nature!(Pauleit,!Ennos,!&!Golding,!2005)!and!a!high!proportion! of!impervious!surface!(Arnold!&!Gibbons,!1996).!Indeed,!compact!urban!areas!can!become!the! antithesis! of! a! sustainable! city,! where! this! results! in! the! loss! of! urban! nature! and! a! lack! of! adequate! space! where! vegetation! can! grow! with! a! consequential! negative! impact! on! environmental!quality,!human!health!and!liveability!(Jim,!2004).!Dense!areas!characterised!by! the!close!alignment!of!buildings,!roads!and!other!built!surfaces!are!a!challenging!environment!in! which!to!grow!greenery,!and!require!a!multiLdisciplinary!approach!that!recognises!the!unique! characteristics!of!such!settings!and!the!need!for!adapted!practices.!Such!an!approach!engenders! the! consideration! of! new! forms! of! urban! nature! and! new! techniques! for! integrating! into! the! complex!urban!environment.!Such!an!approach!has,!however,!been!limited!in!reality!(Jim,!2004).! The!application!of!such!an!approach!requires!assiduous!efforts!by!many!different!stakeholders! including!developers,!government!and!citizens!and!the!development!of!new!mindsets!regarding! urban!development!as!well!as!new!technologies!and!techniques!(Jim,!2004).!

This! tension! between! density! and! greenspace! is! currently! evident! in! Brisbane,! Queensland.! Brisbane!City!Council!acknowledged!that!it!is!unlikely!that!standards!for!local!parks!will!be!met! in!the!innerLcity!area!of!West!End!in!Brisbane,!which!has!been!recently!rezoned!for!highLdensity! redevelopment!in!accordance!with!the!South!East!Queensland!Plan!and!the!draft!City!Plan,!due! to! high! land! values! and! elevated! demand! for! available! land! (Brisbane! City! Council,! cited! in! Byrne,!Sipe,!&!Searle,!2010).!The!dual!issues!of!financing!parks,!and!physically!allocating!land!for! parks!within!an!area!already!largely!developed!with!high!demand!for!housing,!may!be!relevant! to!other!cities!in!Australia!also.!Further,!with!regards!to!directing!the!inclusion!of!green!space!in! urban! development,! Byrne,! et! al.! (2010)! find! that! the! standards! based! approach! (i.e.! a! prescribed! quantity! of! greenspace! per! resident,! or! proportion! of! developed! land! allocated! to! greenspace)! that! has! largely! been! adopted! in! Australia! is! criticised! for! frequently! delivering! poor! quality! parks! and! open! space! that! are! not! widely! used! (Byrne! &! Sipe,! 2010;! Byrne! et! al,! 2010).!

Considering!one!particular!form!of!urban!nature!that!could!compliment!high!density,!Williams,! Rayner,!and!Raynor!(2010)!find!that!extensive!green!roofs!are!not!widely!used!in!Australia.!They! note! persistent! barriers! including! a! lack! of! Australian! data! regarding! the! economic! and! environmental!benefits,!as!well!as!a!lack!of!standards,!high!costs,!and!few!local!examples!that! local!developers!can!look!to.!The!climatic!differences!between!Australia,!and!North!America!and! Europe! where! the! majority! of! green! roofs! have! been! built! and! the! vast! majority! of! data! and!

research! conducted,! limit! the! transferability! of! this! information! to! Australia! (with! notable! exceptions,!such!as!the!work!of!Simmons,!Gardiner,!Windhager!and!Tinsley!(2008).!!

The!challenge!of!integrating!nature!into!cities!has!been!experienced!in!related!efforts,!such!as! the!use!of!water!sensitive!urban!design!(WSUD)!and!the!transition!to!water!sensitive!cities!and! sustainable!urban!water!management!(SUWM).!These!efforts!are!considered!to!provide!insight! to! the! current! discussion! regarding! integrated! urban! nature! as! many! WSUD! features! include! natural! features! and! are! integrated! into! urban! areas! (Wong,! 2006),! and! as! the! transition! to! water! sensitive! cities! and! SUWM! is! proposed! as! a! strategy! to! assist! in! the! response! to! water! management! implications! of! population! growth,! climate! change! and! urbanisation! (van! de! Meene,!Brown,!&!Farrelly,!2011).!!

Roy,! et! al.! (2008)! found! that! the! use! of! watershedLscale! WSUD! in! Australia! has! not! achieved! widespread! implementation,! despite! numerous! demonstrations,! due! to! persistent! barriers.! These! include! 1)! a! lack! of! performance! and! cost! data,! 2)! insufficient! technical! standards! and! guidelines,! 3)! fragmented! government! responsibilities! for! catchment! areas,! 4)! inadequate! institutional! capacity! (i.e.! funding,! personnel,! guidelines,! and! other! resources),! 5)! limited! legislative!requirements,!6)!inadequate!economic!motivations,!and!7)!resistance!to!change.!The! authors! described! seven! opportunities! with! the! potential! to! enable! greater! uptake! of! WSUD! based!on!their!case!study!research,!including!1)!conducting!research!into!the!costs!and!benefits! of!watershed!scale!WSUD!performance;!2)!developing!model!policies!and!standards!that!support! WSUD!as!a!stormwater!management!technique!that!can!be!adapted!to!various!jurisdictions!as! well!as!technical!guidelines;!3)!overcoming!fragmented!responsibilities!with!crossLjurisdictional! collaboration! mechanisms;! 4)! building! industry! professional! capacity;! 5)! fostering! grassroots! efforts! to! build! public! support! for! requirements! for! WSUD! features! on! private! property;! 6)! addressing! market! barriers! to! funding! mechanisms! and! economic! approaches! to! encouraging! WSUD;! and! 7)! conducting! education! and! community! engagement! through! demonstration! projects.!!

Brown!(2012)!and!van!de!Meene,!et!al.!(2011)!also!considered!the!transition!to!water!sensitive! cities!(incorporating!adaptive!water!management,!and!SUWM)!in!Australia.!Brown!(2012)!found! that!progress!towards!water!sensitive!cities!has!been!slow!despite!strong!policy!rhetoric,!proven! technologies! and! strong! evidence! of! the! need! for! such! a! transition.! Brown! suggested! that! barriers! to! the! transition! are! more! complex! than! a! need! for! technical! knowledge! of! WSUD! features,! and! relate! more! to! a! lack! of! understanding! of! the! socioLtechnical! attributes! and! institutional! arrangements! that! are! needed! to! support! a! shift! to! water! sensitive! cities.! Developing! water! sensitive! cities! requires! a! paradigm! shift! in! urban! water! management! and!

governance,!rather!than!simply!the!application!of!new!technologies!within!existing!systems.!In! this!regard,!Brown!reported!that!a!significant!lack!of!insight!exists!into!what!factors!can!assist!in! overcoming! ingrained! institutional! and! path! dependent! factors.! Brown! concluded! that! the! challenge!for!researchers!in!this!regard!is!to!provide!such!insight!and!knowledge!in!forms!that! are!accessible!and!understandable!within!the!context!of!urban!water!professionals!implicated!in! the!implementation!of!such!a!paradigm!shift.!

Van! de! Meene,! et! al.! (2011)! also! considered! the! implications! of! institutional! and! governance! arrangements!for!the!transition!to!SUWM!in!Australia.!They!found!that!barriers!to!the!transition! from! existing! technical,! reductionist! and! linear! management! approaches! to! urban! water! to! an! integrated,! adaptive,! coordinated! and! participatory! approach! are! limiting! the! translation! of! policy!rhetoric!supporting!SUWM!(and!ad#hoc!project!interventions)!into!mainstream!practice.! Van!de!Meene,!et!al.!(2011)!summarised!systemic!and!interrelated!socioLinstitutional!barriers!to! the! mainstream! uptake! of! SUWM! discussed! in! the! literature,! including! (among! others)! institutional! fragmentation;! poor! political! leadership;! unproductive! intergovernmental! relations;! limited! longLterm! strategic! planning;! and! inadequate! community! participation.! The! authors!found!that!a!lack!of!insight!into!governance!approaches!to!address!these!barriers!and! support! SUWM! practices! is! limiting! a! transition! to! SUWM,! and! their! research! investigated! potential!governance!characteristics!of!SUWM!to!inform!this!knowledge!gap.!Their!research!also! uncovered!further!questions!to!be!addressed!in!future!research,!including!the!critical!question!of! “how! to! effectively! inform! SUWM! practice! and! transform! research! insights! on! appropriate,! supportive! governance! approaches! into! practical! guidance! to! improve! SUWM! outcomes”! (p1125).!

Brown!and!Farrelly!(2009)!found!that!whilst!urban!water!policies!reflect!an!understanding!of! the!integrative,!adaptive,!coordinated!and!participatory!approach!required!for!SUWM,!this!has! not!yet!resulted!in!widespread!implementation!of!SUWM.!The!authors!reviewed!53!studies!on! the! barriers,! challenges! and! impediments! to! the! transition! to! mainstream! SUWM,! finding! 36! common! and! discrete! barriers! that! could! be! categorised! into! 12! barrier! types! including:! “uncoordinated! institutional! framework;! limited! community! engagement,! empowerment! and! participation,! limits! of! regulatory! framework;! insufficient! resources! (capital! and! human);! unclear,! fragmented! roles! and! responsibilities;! poor! organisational! commitment;! lack! of! information,! knowledge! and! understanding! in! applying! integrated,! adaptive! forms! of! management;! poor! communication;! no! longLterm! vision,! strategy;! technocratic! path! dependencies;! little! or! no! monitoring! and! evaluation;! and! lack! of! political! and! public! will”! (p842).!

This!literature,!while!by!no!means!exhaustive!or!representative!of!the!breadth!of!research!in!this! field,!highlights!firstly!that!policy!rhetoric!is!not!necessarily!reflected!in!practice!with!regards!to! features! of! urban! development,! secondly! that! evidence! of! examples! of! the! implementation! of! such!features!do!not!necessarily!imply!the!existence!of,!or!a!trend!towards,!widespread!use;!and! thirdly! that! a! transition! towards! holistic,! ecosystemLbased! approaches! to! addressing! negative! impacts! of! urban! development! and! the! challenges! facing! Australian! cities! is! complex! and! will! require!both!technological!innovation!as!well!as!measures!to!overcome!institutional!barriers.!

The!potential!influence!of!these!barriers!was!confirmed!through!stakeholder!workshops,!which! the! author! helped! to! design! and! conduct,! held! by! the! Sustainable! Built! Environment! National! Research! Centre! in! Perth! (13! July! 2011,! 14! workshop! participants,! including! representatives! from! Western! Australia! Department! of! Finance! (Building! Management! and! Works),! staff! from! the!Curtin!University!Sustainability!Policy!Institute,!the!QUT!Faculty!of!the!Built!Environment,! and! industry! practitioners)! and! Brisbane! (7! September! 2011,! 11! participants,! including! representatives!from!Brisbane!City!Council,!Queensland!Government!(Department!of!Parks!and! Wildlife),! AECOM,! Queensland! University! of! Technology,! Australian! Green! Infrastructure! Council,!Deicke!Richards!and!Parsons!Brinckerhoff).!These!workshops!were!designed!to!explore! the! existing! understanding! of! biophilic! urbanism! amongst! practitioners,! politicians! and! the! community;! as! well! as! to! identify! current! barriers! and! opportunities! to! the! application! of! biophilic!urbanism,!primarily!to!support!the!design!of!the!SBEnrc!project!whilst!also!informing! this!PhD.!A!workshop!process!based!on!the!methodology!of!‘Collective!Social!Learning’,!created! by!Brown!and!Harris!(2012)!was!used.!Workshop!participants!provided!insight!into!perceived! disabling! factors! (i.e.! barriers)! and! enabling! factors! (i.e.! opportunities)! to! the! use! of! urban! nature! to! address! the! challenges! of! climate! change.! A! summary! of! the! workshop! process,! and! findings,!is!included!in!Appendix!B.!!

The! government,! industry! and! academic! stakeholders! identified! the! following! key! factors! as! impeding!the!increased!application!of!biophilic!urbanism!in!Australia:!

L Lack#of#proof#and#quantification:!There!is!a!lack!of!local!research!and!information!to!assist! decision! makers! in! making! informed! decisions! and! to! appropriately! apply! biophilic! urbanism! to! Australian! cities.! Without! a! clear! economic! argument,! it! may! be! difficult! for! decision! makers! to! justify! the! inclusion! of! biophilic! features,! and! to! appreciate! how! these! elements! will! affect! longLterm! costs.! Further,! without! proper! quantification,! such! biophilic! features! are! particularly! vulnerable! when! financial! pressures! such! as! the! GFC! result! in! budget!cuts!to!designs.!

L Uncoordinated# policy# and# planning# frameworks:! There! is! a! perceived! lack! of! integration! across!government!departments,!which!may!hinder!the!ability!to!introduce!effective!policy! for!biophilic!urbanism,!as!the!costs!and!benefits!are!spread!across!multiple!departments.!A! “silo! effect”! does! not! allow! governments! to! look! holistically! at! a! concept,! as! offices! look! exclusively!at!one!or!two!subLareas.!Furthermore,!the!absence!of!mandatory!requirements! for! biophilic! urbanism! makes! this! a! beyondLcompliance! addition! to! building! and! planning.! Existing! regulations! and! planning! requirements! generally! do! not! seem! to! support! the! inclusion!of!natural!features.!

L Lack# of# cultural# inertia# and# social# stagnation:! There! is! a! perceived! general! disconnection! from!the!natural!environment!such!that!there!may!be!a!common!lack!of!appreciation!of!the! benefits!of!nature,!or!knowledge!of!place!and!local!species.!This!can!impede!the!application! of! biophilic! urbanism! if! nature! and! natureLbased! experiences! are! not! valued! by! society.! Further,! sustainable! development! is! often! a! secondary! consideration! and! is! frequently! cut! from!construction!budgets!if!funding!is!tight.!

L Split# incentives:! The! benefits! and! costs! of! developing! natural! features! are! split! across! government!departments!and!between!stakeholders!(i.e.!private!organisations,!government! and!society)!such!that!the!costs!may!be!paid!by!a!department,!organisation!or!individual!that! do!not!recoup!the!full!benefits.!

L Inadequacy# of# traditional# economic# models:! Traditional! economic! models! are! not! able! to! value! externalities! and! disempower! decision! makers! from! including! biophilic! elements! in! urban!and!building!design.!