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In! this! section,! a! convergence! of! complex! and! rapidly! evolving! challenges! likely! to! have! significant! impacts! on! Australian! cities! is! considered.! As! highlighted! in! the! following! quote! by!

the!former!Minister!for!Infrastructure!and!Transport,!it!is!critical!to!the!ongoing!prosperity!of! the! nation,! as! well! as! the! health,! wellbeing! and! quality! of! life! for! the! majority! of! Australian! residents!that!these!challenges!are!effectively!responded!to.#

As# is# the# case# internationally,# Australian# cities# are# confronted# by# significant# longJterm# challenges#including#population#growth#and#demographic#change,#climate#change,#increasing# fuel# costs# and# resource# limitations,# housing# affordability,# technological# change,# and# the# accelerating#processes#of#globalisation.#As#concentrated#centres#of#people#and#activity,#cities# also# provide# immense# social# and# economic# opportunity,# as# well# as# substantial# potential# to# redress#environmental#pressures.#

The# way# in# which# governments# plan# and# manage# our# cities# therefore# needs# to# respond# effectively# to# these# challenges# whilst# harnessing# opportunities.# This# will# be# critical# to# maintaining#and#improving#the#quality#of#life#enjoyed#by#our#communities#and#to#help#secure# the#nation’s#productivity#into#the#future.#(Australian#Government,#2011a,#p2)#

The!most!recent!Intergovernmental!Panel!on!Climate!Change!Assessment!Report!concludes!that! the! global! climate! is! warming,! and! that! the! anthropogenic! contribution! to! these! changes! is! virtually! undisputed! amongst! the! scientific! community! (Stocker,! et! al.,! 2013).! These! global! changes! can! be! seen! more! locally! in! Australia,! where! average! surface! air! temperatures! have! increased!by!0.9o_{C!since!1910,!and!seven!of!the!ten!hottest!years!on!record!have!occurred!since!}

1998!(Bureau!of!Meteorology!&!CSIRO,!2014).!Furthermore,!climatic!modelling!shows!that,!due! to! the! time! lag! between! greenhouse! gases! being! emitted! to! the! atmosphere! and! the! resultant! increase! in! temperatures,! there! is! an! estimated! 0.2o_{C! to! 1.0}o_{C! of! additional! increase! in! the!}

average!global!temperature!locked!in!due!to!the!already!emitted!greenhouse!gases.!Additionally,! the! fossil! fuel! economy! is! so! embedded! globally! that! it! is! highly! unlikely! that! anthropogenic! greenhouse! gas! emissions! will! be! eliminated! in! the! near! future.! Consequently,! Australia’s! temperatures!are!projected!to!increase!by!between!0.4o_C!and!2.0o_{C!by!2030!and!1.0}o_C!to!6.0o_C!

by!2070!(Preston!&!Jones,!2006).!!

Climate! change! has! already! begun! to! have! significant! impacts! on! Australian! cities.!Australia! is! one!of!the!most!urbanised!countries!in!the!world,!with!over!75!per!cent!of!the!population!living! in! cities! with! over! 100,000! residents! (Australian! Government,! 2012a),! and! over! 60! per! cent! living!in!the!five!largest!cities!of!Sydney,!Melbourne,!Brisbane,!Perth!and!Adelaide!(Australian! Government,!2010c).!The!changing!climate!affects!some!of!the!underlying!assumptions!that!have! shaped!the!development!of!these!cities,!including!the!temperature!range!for!which!buildings!are! designed,! the! likelihood! of! extreme! weather! events,! energy! and! water! demand! patterns,!

precipitation!patterns,!and!the!need!for!emergency!services!(Revi!et!al.,!2014).!Whilst!cities!are! highly! adaptable! systems,! being! the! centres! of! innovation! and! creativity,! they! are! also! highly! complex!with!interrelated!political,!economic!and!social!systems!that!can!be!difficult!to!change! (Revi,!et!al.,!2014).!Further,!planning!and!development!timeframes!are!long,!as!are!the!lifespans! of! most! infrastructure.! Urban! design! therefore! needs! to! consider! now! the! climate! and! circumstances! that! each! city! is! likely! to! have! at! the! end! of! this! century! and! beyond! (CorfeeL Morlot!et!al.,!2012;!Giordano,!2012;!U.K.!Government,!2011).!This!complexity!combines!with!the! uncertain!and!unprecedented!nature!of!climate!change!to!create!a!challenge!for!policy!makers! for!which!they!have!little!prior!experience!to!draw!upon,!as!was!highlighted!by!Professor!Ross! Garnaut!in!his!inquiry!into!the!impacts!of!climate!change!on!the!Australian!economy:!

Climate# change# is# a# diabolical# policy# problem.# It# is# harder# than# any# other# issue# of# high# importance#that#has#come#before#our#polity#in#living#memory.#Climate#change#presents#a#new# kind#of#challenge.#It#is#uncertain#in#its#form#and#extent,#rather#than#drawn#in#clear#lines.#It#is# insidious#rather#than#(as#yet)#directly#confrontational.#It#is#long#term#rather#than#immediate,# in#both#its#impacts#and#its#remedies#(Garnaut,#2008,#pxviii)#

Further! complicating! the! task! of! responding! to! climate! change! are! the! significant! population! increases! predicted! for! Australia’s! cities,! and! declining! availability! of! resources! upon! which! cities!and!the!people!who!live!there!depend.!By!2035,!Australia’s!capital!cities!are!predicted!to! be! home! to! an! additional! four! million! people! (Department! of! Infrastructure! and! Regional! Development,! 2013b),! accommodating! a! disproportionate! share! of! Australia’s! population! growth!as!a!whole,!which!is!amongst!the!highest!of!developed!nations!and!is!expected!to!reach! 35.9!million!by!2050!(Australian!Government,!2010a).!Significant!demographic!changes,!and!in! particular!an!ageing!population,!will!also!have!significant!impacts!on!demands!for!urban!design! and!function.!By!2050,!the!proportion!of!the!population!aged!65!and!over!is!expected!to!increase! by!23!per!cent,!up!from!13.3!per!cent!in!2006!(Australian!Government,!2010c).!The!average!size! of!households!is!anticipated!to!decline,!from!2.6!people!per!household!in!2001!to!2.3!people!per! household!in!2026!(Australian!Government,!2010c).!_! The!following!paragraphs!highlight!a!number!of!core!challenges!resulting!from!climate!change,! urban!population!growth,!and!global!and!local!resources!shortages,!including:! - Heatwaves!and!the!urban!heat!island!effect;! - Rainfall!patterns!and!water!availability;! - Sea!level!rise,!cyclones!and!storm!surge;! - Bushfires;!

- Peak!power!demand;! - Urban!water!and!air!quality;! - Food!security!and!biodiversity;! - Automobile!dependency,!congestion!and!oil!vulnerability;! - Housing!supply!and!affordability;! - Urban!liveability!and!global!competitiveness;!and! - Infrastructure!deficit.! It!is!acknowledged!that!the!challenges!considered!here!are!incomplete,!however!they!adequately! serve!the!purpose!of!setting!a!context!of!urgent!and!challenging!times!for!this!thesis.!# 2.3.1 Heatwaves(and(the(urban(heat(island(effect( Heatwaves!are!Australia’s!most!deadly!natural!hazard.!More!people!have!died!from!heatwaves! since! 1890! than! in! bushfires,! cyclones,! earthquakes,! floods! and! severe! storms! combined! (Department!of!Infrastructure!and!Regional!Development,!2013b).!A!heatwave!that!occurred!in! the!last!week!of!January!2009!led!to!374!excess!deaths!(i.e.,!deaths!that!exceeded!the!average! expected!number)!in!Melbourne,!with!over!3,000!heat!related!illnesses!in!Adelaide!(Queensland! University! of! Technology,! 2010).! In! 2009,! new! daily! maximum! temperature! extremes! were! recorded!in!both!cities!(46.4o_{C!in!Melbourne!and!45.7}o_{C!in!Adelaide),!with!temperatures!12.0}o_C!

to! 15.0o_{C! above! than! the! seasonal! average! for! several! days! (Queensland! University! of!}

Technology,!2010).!Infrastructure!systems!were!strained.!TwentyLfour!per!cent!of!Melbourne’s! trains!stopped!due!to!buckling!train!tracks,!power!loss,!and!the!failure!of!components!such!as!air! conditioners.! Melbourne’s! electricity! network! was! also! compromised,! with! transmission! and! distribution!networks!heat!affected.!Five!hundred!thousands!residents!were!without!power!on! the!evening!of!January!30th_{.!A!consequential!review!of!the!impacts!of!the!heatwave!found!that!}

the! “[electricity]! sector! was! under! sever! stress! and! in! a! state! of! near! collapse”! (Queensland! University! of! Technology,! 2010,! pviii).! It! was! generally! felt! that! emergency! management! response! services! were! poorly! prepared! to! deal! with! the! heatwave,! and! would! not! have! been! able!to!manage!had!the!heatwave!lasted!longer!(Queensland!University!of!Technology,!2010).!_!

More!recently,!the!2012L13!heatwave!affected!70!per!cent!of!Australia,!and!was!unprecedented! in! duration,! scope! and! intensity.! Significantly,! the! extreme! temperatures! and! weather! events! during!this!period!occurred!in!the!absence!of!El!Niño!conditions,!which!typically!precede!such! high! temperatures.! This! adds! weight! to! the! Climate! Commission’s! summary! that! the! basic! feature! of! the! climatic! system! have! shifted,! changing! the! conditions! for! weather! events,! and!

making!the!kinds!of!extreme!weather!events!seen!in!Australia!over!the!2012L13!summer!period! increasingly!likely!and!severe!(Steffen,!2013):!#

It#is#highly#likely#that#extreme#hot#weather#will#become#even#more#frequent#and#severe#in# Australia# and# around# the# globe# over# the# coming# decades.# The# decisions# we# make# this# decade#will#largely#determine#the#severity#of#climate#change#and#its#influence#on#extreme# events#for#our#grandchildren.!(Steffen,!2013,!p1)#

Heatwaves!are!predicted!to!become!more!frequent,!to!affect!larger!areas,!and!to!last!for!longer,! with!deaths!estimated!to!double!in!the!next!40!years!as!a!result!of!climate!change,!population! growth! and! an! ageing! population! (Department! of! Infrastructure! and! Regional! Development,! 2013b).! People! living! in! cities! are! particularly! at! risk,! as! the! urban! heat! island! (UHI)! effect! exacerbates!the!high!temperatures,!especially!overnight,!and!are!more!susceptible!to!blackouts! (Department!of!Infrastructure!and!Regional!Development,!2013b).!!

The! UHI! effect! is! a! phenomenon! affecting! cities! worldwide,! whereby! urban! areas! can! be! significantly!warmer!than!surrounding!areas.!The!UHI!effect!is!the!product!of!several!aspects!of! conventional!urban!development,!including!(Rizwan,!Dennis,!&!Liu,!2008):!

L Increases!in!built!surfaces!such!as!bitumen!roads,!concrete!pavements,!roof!tiles!and!bricks,! which! have! high! thermal! conductivity,! high! heat! storage! capacity! and! low! albedo! values.! These! materials! absorb! large! amounts! of! incoming! solar! radiation,! store! this! as! heat,! and! rerelease!it!during!the!night;!

L Loss!of!vegetation!and!the!natural!cooling!effects!of!evapotranspiration!and!shading;!

L Predominance! of! ‘urban! canyons’! between! buildings! and! other! infrastructure,! which! have! large! amounts! of! surface! area! but! little! sky! view,! which! reduces! the! amount! of! longLwave! radiation!lost!to!the!atmosphere!and!surface!cooling!effects;!and!!

L Increases!in!anthropogenic!heat!sources,!such!as!cars,!air!conditioners!and!industry.!

In!the!CBD!of!Melbourne,!an!UHI!peak!of!7.1o_{C!was!observed!in!comparison!to!outerlying!rural!}

areas!(Torok,!Morris,!Skinner,!&!Plummer,!2001),!and!0.8o_{C!on!a!30!degree!day,!and!0.5}o_C!on!a!

40!degree!day!in!comparison!to!nonLCDB!parts!of!the!city!(Raalte,!Nolan,!Thakur,!Xue,!&!Parker,! 2012).!Combined!with!the!effects!of!climate!change,!modelling!predicts!that!the!Melbourne!CBD! will!experience!2.2!additional!days!per!year!that!are!greater!than!35o_{C!than!nonLCBD!areas,!and!}

an!additional!heatwave!(i.e.!three!sequential!days!over!35o_{C)!every!ten!years!compared!to!nonL}

CBD! areas.! The! UHI! effect! is! estimated! to! add! $300!million! to! the! already! substantial! costs! resulting!from!hot!weather,!with!impacts!that!include!impaired!health!and!morbidity,!transport! operation!and!infrastructure,!energy!demand!and!infrastructure,!trees!and!animals,!and!crime!

rates!(Raalte,!et!al.,!2012).!In!Adelaide,!the!CBD!area!was!on!average!(throughout!the!year),!1.5o_C!

warmer! than!the!surrounding!parklands!during!the!night,!and!about!0.5o_{C!warmer!during!the!}

day!(Guan!et!al.,!2013).!!

Across! most! Australian! cities,! evidence! suggests! average! temperatures! have! increased! by! between!0.4o_C!and!0.8o_{C!since!1960,!whilst!maximum!temperatures!in!Australia’s!major!cities!}

have!increased!by!up!to!2.0o_{C!since!1952!(Australian!Government,!2012a).!These!temperature!} increases!are!likely!a!combination!of!general!climate!change!induced!temperature!increases!and! a!growing!UHI!effect!(Department!of!Infrastructure!and!Regional!Development,!2013b).!A!75!per! cent!increase!in!heatLrelated!premature!mortality!is!predicted!across!six!temperate!Australian! cities!by!2050!(McBride,!2007).! 2.3.2 Rainfall(patterns(and(water(availability( Australia!has!amongst!the!most!variable!rainfall!climates!in!the!world.!This!results!in!periods!of! low! rainfall! and! drought,! as! well! as! extreme! flooding.! The! decadeLlong! Millennium! Drought! began! in! 1997! and! lasted! until! the! heavy! rains! of! 2009! and! 2010,! which! caused! significant! flooding! and! damage.! The!drought!profoundly!affected!Australia’s!environment,!economy,!and! the!national!mindset!regarding!water!use!(Heberger,!2011).!!

Climate!change!is!expected!to!exacerbate!this!natural!variation!in!climatic!conditions!(Australian! Government,! 2012b).! Australia’s! rainfall! and! cyclone! frequency! and! intensity! is! linked! to! a! number!of!largeLscale!patterns!including!'El!Niño–Southern!Oscillation'!(ENSO),!the!Hadley!Cell,! Indian!Ocean!Dipole,!Interdecadal!Pacific!Oscillation,!MaddenLJulian!Oscillation!(MJO),!Southern! Annular!Mode!(SAM)!and!the!subLtropical!ridge,!as!well!as!the!midLlatitude!jet!stream,!changes! in! sea! surface! temperature,! changes! in! deep! convection,! and! even! changes! in! the! ozone! layer.! Future! patterns! in! Australia! remain! uncertain! due! to! the! complex! interaction! between! those! influences,!which!can!be!affected!by!increased!greenhouse!gas!concentrations!in!various!ways! (Australian!Government,!2012a;!Holper,!2011).!

Nonetheless,! increasing! sophistication! of! climate! models! along! with! growing! data! of! actual! events! is! strengthening! predictions! that! existing! trends! will! continue! with! eastern,! southL eastern!and!southLwestern!Australia!becoming!dryer,!while!northLwestern!Australia!becoming! generally! wetter.! Trends! also! indicate! that,! even! where! annual! rainfall! is! decreasing,! a! larger! proportion!of!rainfall!stems!from!extreme!events!in!southLwestern,!eastern,!and!southLeastern! Australia.! Where! rainfall! is! increasing,! extreme! rainfall! events! are! increasing! at! a! faster! rate! (Holper,!2011).!Whilst!there!are!mixed!results!regarding!the!frequency!and!intensity!of!cyclones!

in!the!future,!models!show!marked!increases!in!severe!Category!3!to!5!storms,!which!can!cause! extreme!flooding!(Australian!Government,!2012b).!

Overall,! predictions! are! for! an! increase! in! the! number! of! extremely! hot! and! dry! years,! with! higher! temperatures! increasing! evaporation! of! soil! moisture! and! decreasing! runoff.! The! increased! dryness! predicted! will! be! exacerbated! by! population! growth! and! the! associated! increased! demand! for! water.! The! 2013! State! of! Australian! Cities! report! highlights! that! any! worsening! of! drought! conditions! would! require! “radical! changes! to! buildings,! industry! and! urban! landscapes! in! order! to! maximise! water! capture,! reuse! and! efficiency! measures”! (Department!of!Infrastructure!and!Regional!Development,!2013b,!p194).!The!effects!of!climate! change!appear!to!be!variable!throughout!Australia’s!major!cities,!with!some!(such!as!Brisbane,! the! Gold! Coast! and! Toowoomba)! receiving! more! intense! precipitation,! others! (such! as! Melbourne,! Adelaide,! Perth! and! Hobart)! receiving! significantly! less! (Department! of! Infrastructure!and!Regional!Development,!2013b).!

Water! shortages! are! expected! to! be! a! significant! issue! in! the! future! as! climate! change! and! population!growth!progress.!For!example,!rainfall!in!southLwest!Western!Australia,!where!Perth! is!located,!has!declined!by!around!15!per!cent!since!the!midL1970s,!impacting!average!stream! flow! into! Perth’s! dams.! This! decline! is! attributed! at! least! in! part! to! climate! change,! and! significant!further!declines!are!predicted!(8!to!33!per!cent!by!midLcentury,!and!17!to!46!per!cent! by! the! end! of! the! century! compared! to! 1962L1999! models,! under! an! intermediate! emissions! model)! (National! Climate! Change! Adaptation! Research! Facility,! 2013).! Household! demand! has! decreased,!and!water!supply!has!diversified!with!the!construction!of!desalination!plants,!deep! groundwater!and!wastewater!recycling!However!there!is!a!considerable!risk!that!demand!will! exceed!supply!in!the!future,!with!current!projections!predicting!deficits!of!315!GL/year!by!2060! (National!Climate!Change!Adaptation!Research!Facility,!2013).! 2.3.3 Sea(level(rise,(cyclones(and(storm(surge( Rising!sea!levels,!and!increasing!heavy!rainfall!and!intensity!of!storms!and!tropical!cyclones!are! expected! to! increase! erosion! and! inundation! along! Australia’s! coast,! and! cause! significant! damage!to!Australian!cities!and!infrastructure.!Globally,!sea!levels!have!risen!by!20!centimetres! on! average! since! preLindustrial! times! (Department! of! Climate! Change,! 2009).! The! rise! in! Australia!has!been!variable,!influenced!by!factors!including!frequent!and!severe!El!Niño!events! that!have!occurred!since!the!1990s.!The!IPCC!climate!change!projections!estimate!a!global!seaL level!rise!of!up!to!98!centimetres!by!2100!(upper!end!of!predicted!rises!under!various!modelling! scenarios)! (Church! et! al.,! 2013).! The! Australian! Climate! Commission! finds! three! main! ways! in!

which! buildings! and! infrastructure! are! at! risk! from! seaLlevel! rise,! including:! storm! related! flooding! that! is! increased! with! even! small! levels! of! sea! level! rise;! permanent! flooding! from! higher!seas;!and!erosion!of!land!(Climate!Commission,!2013).!

The! impact! of! sea! level! rise! is! exacerbated! by! storm! surge,! cyclones! and! heavy! rain,! and! king! tides.!Climate!modelling!suggests!that!even!for!warming!of!1.0o_C!to!2.0o_{C,!more!intense!storm!}

winds! and! sea! level! rise! would! result! in! higher! storm! surge! and! larger! flood! areas.! Tropical! cyclones!are!predicted!to!increase!in!intensity!whilst!occurring!at!a!similar!or!reduced!frequency! (Reisinger!et!al.,!2014).!Storm!damage,!which!tends!to!increase!with!the!square!of!wind!speed,! would! also! increase! and! coastal! inundation! and! beach! erosion! is! likely! to! have! impacts! on! tourism.! The! IPCC! anticipates! that! population! growth! and! ongoing! coastal! development! will! exacerbate!these!risks!(Preston!&!Jones,!2006).!_!

The!potential!for!significant,!widespread!damage!from!storms!and!the!vulnerability!of!Australian! cities! is! evident! from! the! 2011! floods! in! Queensland.! These! caused! severe! damage! to! infrastructure! and! settlements,! leading! to! 35! deaths,! three! quarters! of! the! State! including! Brisbane!being!declared!a!disaster!zone,!and!damages!to!public!infrastructure!amounting!to!$5L 6!billion!(Reisinger,!et!al.,!2014).!Under!climate!change!scenarios,!there!is!a!predicted!increase!in! the! frequency! and! intensity! of! flood! damage! to! Australian! settlements! and! infrastructure! (Reisinger,!et!al.,!2014).!

2.3.4 Bushfires(

The!risk!of!bushfires,!as!for!many!changes!predicted!with!climate!change,!increases!nonLlinearly! with! average! temperatures.! For! example,! the! risk! of! bushfires! increases! by! 5! per! cent! with! a! temperature!increase!of!1.5o_{C!above!preLindustrial!levels,!but!for!a!3.4}o_{C!increase!the!risk!is!20!}

per!cent!higher.!The!bushfires!that!followed!the!January!2009!heatwave!resulted!in!173!deaths,! and! destroyed! 2030! homes! and! over! 3,500! structures! in! Victoria.! Several! towns! northeast! of! Melbourne!were!virtually!destroyed.!A!conservative!estimate!suggested!the!total!cost!of!the!fires! exceeded!$4!billion!(Victorian!Bushfires!Royal!Commission,!2009).!The!City!of!Melbourne!lists! the!risk!of!bushfires!as!one!of!the!key!threats!to!the!inner!city!LGA!as!climate!change!progresses,! driven!by!decreased!water!supply!and!increased!temperatures.!The!number!of!days!with!very! high!or!extreme!fire!danger!in!Melbourne!is!expected!to!increase!from!9!to!15!by!2070,!with!a! higher! frequency! and! intensity! of! bushfires! resulting.! Beyond! the! direct! impact! of! such! fires,! these! have! wider! impacts! due! to! ash! clogging! filter! systems! and! setting! off! fire! alarms! in! buildings,!and!building!management!will!need!to!prepare!for!such!changes!(City!of!Melbourne,! 2009).!

!

2.3.5 Peak(power(demand(

Peak!power!demand!in!Australia!has!risen!significantly!over!the!last!decade,!primarily!driven!by! increases!in!residential!air!conditioner!usage!(Productivity!Commission,!2013).!The!proportion! of! Australian! households! with! a! cooler! in! use! (either! a! refrigerated! air! conditioner! or! an! evaporative! cooler)! increased! from! 59! per! cent! in! 2005! to! 73!per! cent! in! 2011! (a! statistically! significant! increase! in! all! states! except! Northern! Territory)! (Australian! Bureau! of! Statistics,! 2011).!This!rapid!growth!in!air!conditioner!possession!has!effectively!overshadowed!any!energy! consumption! reductions! gained! by! improved! efficiency! over! the! same! period! (Department! of! Infrastructure! and! Regional! Development,! 2013b).! Air! conditioner! usage! is! linked! to! weather! patterns,! with! heatwaves! and! other! often! shortLlived! and! infrequent! events! creating! major! spikes!in!electricity!usage!(Productivity!Commission,!2013).!_!

Urban! development! impacts! on! air! conditioner! usage! and! power! demand! by! contributing! to! elevated! urban! temperatures.! For! example,! daily! electricity! demand! in! the! City! of! Melbourne! LGA! increases! by! 0.137GWh! LGA! in! summer! for! every! incremental! increase! in! daily! average! temperatures! above! 20o_{C,! driven! by! cooling! requirements! of! buildings.! With! regards! to! peak!}

power!demand,!the!maximum!demand!for!the!City!of!Melbourne!LGA!is!estimated!to!increase!by! approximately!22.0!MegaLVoltLAmpere!(MVA)!for!every!Celsius!degree!increase!in!summer!daily! temperature!(Raalte,!et!al.,!2012).!Hence,!urban!design!that!contributes!to!the!UHI!effect!has!an! effect!on!energy!demand!(Raalte,!et!al.,!2012).! These!increases!have!financial!implications!for!all!Australians,!as!forecast!peak!demand!is!a!key! driver!of!investment!in!electricity!generation!and!network!capacity!in!Australia,!and!thus!also! the! cost! of! electricity,! despite! such! events! occurring! relatively! infrequently.! The! Productivity! Commission! cites! the! example! of! New! South! Wales,! where! peak! power! capacity! accounts! for! over!25!per!cent!of!electricity!costs!to!consumers,!however!it!is!needed!for!fewer!than!40!hours! each!year,!or!less!than!one!per!cent!of!the!time!(Productivity!Commission,!2013).!

2.3.6 Urban(water(and(air(quality(

Urban!water!and!air!quality!are!both!impacted!by!urban!development,!and!have!the!potential!to! be!exacerbated!by!climate!change.!Ozone!and!particulate!matter!are!the!main!air!pollutants!of! concern! in! Australia’s! cities.! Levels! have! remained! persistently! high,! at! or! above! national! air! quality! limits,! and! showed! no! evidence! of! decline.! However,! other! pollutants! have! shown! marked! decreases! over! recent! years,! including! lead,! carbon! monoxide,! sulphur! dioxide! and!

nitrogen! dioxide.! Air! quality! is! a! significant! concern! for! people! living! in! cities! in! Australia.! Respiratory!conditions!were!the!most!commonly!reported!health!conditions!amongst!children! and!young!adults,!and!exposure!to!urban!air!pollution!in!Australia!now!accounting!for!2.3!per! cent! of! all! deaths! (Australian! Government,! 2010c).! High! particle! matter! levels! are! frequently!