PROYECTOS DE DESARROLLO TURÍSTICO

In this section I explore literature on the interventions adopted to address the NEETs issue globally, regionally and nationally. Several educational research studies and reports that have been carried out on the 15 – 24 year olds tend to bring out only quantitative and leave out qualitative data that focus on the youth’s personal views and experiences (Aitchison, 2010; EMIS, 2012; Oppenheimer et al., 2011). Most research tends to use research methods that do not engage the youth themselves. Consultations, if conducted, are superficial and do not get to the root cause of being a NEET. As such, unilateral policies are developed which tend to ignore the NEETs context or environment. Literature also points to the neoliberal framework that tends to dominate and influence the development and implementation of educational policies regarding NEETs (Davies & Bansel, 2007; Hursh, 2001; Klees, 2014).

In this section I will start by exploring international interventions then move down to the country-level interventions on NEET issues. Then I will explore literature on the influence of neoliberalism on the development of policies. The section will be concluded with studies that

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emphasise the importance of beneficiaries’ voices so as to inform the development of policies that reach out to where the beneficiaries actually are.

2.6.1 International interventions and development of unilateral policies

Most international progress reports reflect only statistical data on how countries fare with international declarations. For instance, to address social disparities relating to the youth and their educational needs, the World Education Forum in Dakar in 2000 agreed on Education for All (EFA) targets. The EFA targets were meant to meet basic learning needs including those of the youth as it looked at issues of access to free and compulsory primary education. The emphasis on meeting learning and life skills needs for young people was aimed at addressing poverty and access to employment. The EFA goals were further emphasized in the United Nations Millennium Summit where countries agreed on eight development targets to be achieved by developing countries by 2015. These goals were referred to as the Millennium Development Goals (MDG’s). Both agreements were meant to increase globalisation and economic competitiveness in the North and the South. However, according to Preece (2009), the MDGs were meant for the countries of the South whilst the North adopted the Memorandum for Lifelong Learning.

Whilst this study does not focus on the North and South debate addressed by Preece (2009), literature points towards the move towards Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for all countries, whether South or North. The aim of SDG number 4 is to ‘Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all’ (UNESCO, 2016, p. i). The argument forwarded by this report is that ‘if we leave the current young generation without adequate schooling, we doom them and the world to future poverty, environmental ills, and even social violence and instability for decades to come’ (ibid, p. ii). This argument by the Global Education Monitoring report does not necessarily ignore the achievements made through the Millennium Development Goals (MDG’s).

Great strides were taken towards achieving the MDGs (UNESCO, 2010) by individual countries. The EFA Global Monitoring Report (2010) demonstrates the success by individual countries particularly with regard to Universal Primary Education as secondary and tertiary participation had been increased in many countries. The reports also reflect an improvement in overcoming hunger, poverty and child maternal mortality. My concern for these reports, however, is that there is only statistical data revealing that since 1999 the number of out-of- school children had dropped by 33 million. Although the report reflects a drop in the

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percentage rate for girls who were out-of-school, from 58 to 54 percent and an increase in the numbers of adults in adult literacy programmes of 10 percent, the underlying variables contributing to the drop and increase are not reflected. Neither are the voices evident of the people who are the subject of the report.

With regard to a lack of the youth’s voices, whilst the EFA report points out statistical achievements on the EFA targets for Eswatini, the EMIS report points out the challenge on the country’s education (Dlamini, 2014; EMIS, 2015). According to these reports, the educational challenges, which are derived mainly from statistical data include the drop-out and repetition rates (Berg, Wyk, Hofmeyr & Ferreira, 2018). The causes for these are merely speculations as there is no evidence from those who had dropped out 6or were at risk of dropping out7. Despite the introduction of free primary education in 2010, in 2011 the drop- out rate is high for Grades 1, 6 and 7, at 4, 12 and 5.04 percent respectively (Berg, Wyk, Hofmeyr & Ferreira, 2018; EMIS, 2015). The reports also states that the repetition rate is around 15 percent on average. In my view this means even with Free Primary Education intervention in Eswatini, the number of NEETs would still be high considering the high drop- out rate.

Other reports that focused on statistical data include Atchison’s (2010) study on youth and adult learning in Southern Africa. His study analysed statistical data and has recommendations about what could be done to address the challenge of youth who are out-of- school; however, the study does not state the youths’ views. The Brenthurst Foundation report by governments from Zambia, Mozambique and Eswatini develops policies to curb youth unemployment in their respective countries (Oppenheimer et al., 2011). These interventions were government driven and youth voices were conspicuously missing whereas it is the youth who are the targets of these educational interventions. The dialogues held were amongst policy makers and the interventions implemented were designed by them with superficial, if any, consultation with the youth. In Eswatini, the out-of-school study (Berg, Wyk, Hofmeyr & Ferreira, 2018) and the census report on learners between 10 – 18 years who were in Non- formal Education (Sebenta National Institute, 2012), like the other reports already mentioned, focused on statistics and just highlighted some of the socio-economic background of the individuals without getting their perspective on educational issues.

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Drop-out: children who attended school at some point in the past but have since left. They may have done so before or after completion of primary or lower secondary education (UNICEF & UNESCO, 2011, p. 15).

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Risk of dropping out: Children who are not participating in the intended level of education for the intended duration and at the intended age (ibid. p. 10). Late entry into school implies that the child is over-age, a risk factor for non-completion of primary or secondary education (ibid. p. 14).

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NEETs and handing out allowances

The NEETs challenges overwhelm even the best efforts for employment generation worldwide (Oppenheimer et al., 2011; The Economist, 2013). In Europe, for instance, NEETs are very heavy on taxpayers as they receive allowances referred to as Education Maintenance Allowances (EMA) which seem to have their own challenges (Marsh, 2009). Funds assigned to disengaged youth in Europe amount to one percent of the Gross Domestic Product (ibid). Dealing with the NEETs in developing countries is different from Europe because of scarce resources. Developing countries tend to compromise all provisions relating to human development including education (UNESCO, 2010). To me, handing out allowances to the NEETs as practiced in the North and compromising basic services as in the developing countries cannot make a significant contribution in the reduction of NEETs. Handing out allowances is not sustainable and creates dependency as I view it as giving the youth fish instead of capacitating them on how to fish. Compromising basic services does not prepare the youth for a productive life. In my view there is a need for efforts that will fast track economic development and respond to issues of youths that contribute to their failure to negotiate the transition process.

In conclusion these studies, including the census report, point out the situation of the youth and recommend how it can be addressed. Some of the studies reflect the youth themselves expressing their desires to be reintegrated into the formal education system. However, the studies do not demonstrate an in-depth understanding of the youth’s feelings in relation to their experiences towards their educational provision. In my view most of these studies were about the individuals, not for them. In other words, the youths have been the object of the research studies as opposed to being the research subjects. This has the effect that little is known about their attitudes towards education, their life stories, and educational experiences, and not much scholarship brings in their voices in the educational interventions.

2.6.2 Methodological approaches to youth research

Although some studies and reports focus on statistical data, there are studies that have used methods to dig deeper into the issues surrounding educational challenges faced by the youth. Literature argues that rather than seeing young people as problematic or a challenge just from the statistical data, youths should be seen as partners who can contribute to socio-economic growth and development (Furlong, 2006; Making Cents International, 2012; Yates & Payne, 2006). According to Making Cents International (2012) there is a need for evidence-based, sustainable, scalable and cost-effective programmes to address NEETs issues.

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Young people are also concerned about not having a say in policies impacting on their lives (Marsh, 2009; UNDP, 2013). The young people are ‘convinced that people who are not attuned to their needs, behavioural trends and characteristics are the ones making the decisions that have an impact on their development’ (UNDP, 2013, p. 30). Literature points out that data informing youth interventions should not be limited to statistical data but should also address key aspects such as the youths’ experiences, livelihoods, community services performed by youths, their associations, networks and relationships; how they spend their time; who influences them; their hopes and aspirations, and concerns; the forms of family support received and/or expected; and sources of self-esteem (Fawcett et al., 2010; Marsh, 2009; Phillips, 2010). Collecting data that include all these aspects of the youths’ lives would facilitate the in-depth understanding of who the NEETs are, instead of defining them by what they are not (Yates & Payne, 2006). Not understanding who NEETs are results in firefighting approaches to programme development. In the research methodology chapter, I present the participatory research methods used in this study to demonstrate how disadvantaged groups including NEETs can contribute to a study that touches on their lives.